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Familial hypercholesterolemia: the lipids or the genes?

ABSTRACT: Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a common cause of premature cardiovascular disease and is often undiagnosed in young people. Although the disease is diagnosed clinically by high LDL cholesterol levels and family history, to date there are no single internationally accepted criteria for the diagnosis of FH. Several genes have been shown to be involved in FH; yet determining the implications of the different mutations on the phenotype remains a hard task. The polygenetic nature of FH is being enhanced by the discovery of new genes that serve as modifiers. Nevertheless, the picture is still unclear and many unknown genes contributing to the phenotype are most likely involved. Because of this evolving polygenetic nature, the diagnosis of FH by genetic testing is hampered by its cost and effectiveness.In this review, we reconsider the clinical versus genetic nomenclature of FH in the literature. After we describe each of the genetic causes of FH, we summarize the known correlation with phenotypic measures so far for each genetic defect. We then discuss studies from different populations on the genetic and clinical diagnoses of FH to draw helpful conclusions on cost-effectiveness and suggestions for diagnosis.

SUBMITTER: Fahed AC

PROVIDER: S-EPMC3104361 | biostudies-literature | 2011 Apr

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

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Familial hypercholesterolemia: the lipids or the genes?

Fahed Akl C AC Nemer Georges M GM

Nutrition & metabolism 20110422 1

Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a common cause of premature cardiovascular disease and is often undiagnosed in young people. Although the disease is diagnosed clinically by high LDL cholesterol levels and family history, to date there are no single internationally accepted criteria for the diagnosis of FH. Several genes have been shown to be involved in FH; yet determining the implications of the different mutations on the phenotype remains a hard task. The polygenetic nature of FH is bein ...[more]

PMID: 21513517

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Project description:BACKGROUND:Approximately 7% of American adults have severe hypercholesterolemia (untreated low-density lipoprotein [LDL] cholesterol ?190 mg/dl), which may be due to familial hypercholesterolemia (FH). Lifelong LDL cholesterol elevations in FH mutation carriers may confer coronary artery disease (CAD) risk beyond that captured by a single LDL cholesterol measurement. OBJECTIVES:This study assessed the prevalence of an FH mutation among those with severe hypercholesterolemia and determined whether CAD risk varies according to mutation status beyond the observed LDL cholesterol level. METHODS:Three genes causative for FH (LDLR, APOB, and PCSK9) were sequenced in 26,025 participants from 7 case-control studies (5,540 CAD case subjects, 8,577 CAD-free control subjects) and 5 prospective cohort studies (11,908 participants). FH mutations included loss-of-function variants in LDLR, missense mutations in LDLR predicted to be damaging, and variants linked to FH in ClinVar, a clinical genetics database. RESULTS:Among 20,485 CAD-free control and prospective cohort participants, 1,386 (6.7%) had LDL cholesterol ?190 mg/dl; of these, only 24 (1.7%) carried an FH mutation. Within any stratum of observed LDL cholesterol, risk of CAD was higher among FH mutation carriers than noncarriers. Compared with a reference group with LDL cholesterol <130 mg/dl and no mutation, participants with LDL cholesterol ?190 mg/dl and no FH mutation had a 6-fold higher risk for CAD (odds ratio: 6.0; 95% confidence interval: 5.2 to 6.9), whereas those with both LDL cholesterol ?190 mg/dl and an FH mutation demonstrated a 22-fold increased risk (odds ratio: 22.3; 95% confidence interval: 10.7 to 53.2). In an analysis of participants with serial lipid measurements over many years, FH mutation carriers had higher cumulative exposure to LDL cholesterol than noncarriers. CONCLUSIONS:Among participants with LDL cholesterol ?190 mg/dl, gene sequencing identified an FH mutation in <2%. However, for any observed LDL cholesterol, FH mutation carriers had substantially increased risk for CAD.

Project description:BACKGROUND:Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is one of the commonest inherited metabolic disorders. Abnormally high level of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in blood leads to premature atherosclerosis onset and a high risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, the specific mechanisms of the progression process are still unclear. Our study aimed to investigate the potential differently expressed genes (DEGs) and mechanism of FH using various bioinformatic tools. METHODS:GSE13985 and GSE6054 were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database for bioinformatic analysis in this study. First, limma package of R was used to identify DEGs between blood samples of patients with FH and those from healthy individuals. Then, the functional annotation of DEGs was carried out by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis and Gene Ontology (GO) analysis. Based on Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING) tool, we constructed the Protein-Protein Interactions (PPIs) network among DEGs and mined the core genes as well. RESULTS:A total of 102 communal DEGs (49 up-regulated and 53 down-regulated) are identified in FH samples compared with control samples. The functional changes of DEGs are mainly associated with the focal adhere and glucagon signaling pathway. Ten genes (ITGAL, TLN1, POLR2A, CD69, GZMA, VASP, HNRNPUL1, SF1, SRRM2, ITGAV) were identified as core genes. Bioinformatic analysis showed that the core genes are mainly enriched in numerous processes related to cell adhesion, integrin-mediated signaling pathway and cell-matrix adhesion. In the transcription factor (TF) target regulating network, 219 nodes were detected, including 214 DEGs and 5 TFs (SP1, EGR3, CREB, SEF1, HOX13). In conclusion, the DEGs and hub genes identified in this study may help us understand the potential etiology of the occurrence and development of AS. CONCLUSION:Up-regulated ITGAL, TLN1, POLR2A, VASP, HNRNPUL1, SF1, SRRM2, and down-regulated CD69, GZMA and ITGAV performed important promotional effects for the formation of atherosclerotic plaques those suffering from FH. Moreover, SP1, EGR3, CREB, SEF1 and HOX13 were the potential transcription factors for DEGs and could serve as underlying targets for AS rupture prevention. These findings provide a theoretical basis for us to understand the potential etiology of the occurrence and development of AS in FH patients and we may be able to find potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets.

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Familial hypercholesterolemia: the lipids or the genes?

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Familial hypercholesterolemia: the lipids or the genes?

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