Cost-effectiveness of World Health Organization 2010 guidelines for prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in Zimbabwe.
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ABSTRACT: Background
In 2010, the World Health Organization (WHO) released revised guidelines for prevention of mother-to-child human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission (PMTCT). We projected clinical impacts, costs, and cost-effectiveness of WHO-recommended PMTCT strategies in Zimbabwe.Methods
We used Zimbabwean data in a validated computer model to simulate a cohort of pregnant, HIV-infected women (mean age, 24 years; mean CD4 count, 451 cells/µL; subsequent 18 months of breastfeeding). We simulated guideline-concordant care for 4 PMTCT regimens: single-dose nevirapine (sdNVP); WHO-recommended Option A, WHO-recommended Option B, and Option B+ (lifelong maternal 3-drug antiretroviral therapy regardless of CD4). Outcomes included maternal and infant life expectancy (LE) and lifetime healthcare costs (2008 US dollars [USD]). Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs, in USD per year of life saved [YLS]) were calculated from combined (maternal + infant) discounted costs and LE.Results
Replacing sdNVP with Option A increased combined maternal and infant LE from 36.97 to 37.89 years and would reduce lifetime costs from $5760 to $5710 per mother-infant pair. Compared with Option A, Option B further improved LE (38.32 years), and saved money within 4 years after delivery ($5630 per mother-infant pair). Option B+ (LE, 39.04 years; lifetime cost, $6620 per mother-infant pair) improved maternal and infant health, with an ICER of $1370 per YLS compared with Option B.Conclusions
Replacing sdNVP with Option A or Option B will improve maternal and infant outcomes and save money; Option B increases health benefits and decreases costs compared with Option A. Option B+ further improves maternal outcomes, with an ICER (compared with Option B) similar to many current HIV-related healthcare interventions.
SUBMITTER: Ciaranello AL
PROVIDER: S-EPMC3540037 | biostudies-literature |
REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature
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Project description:BackgroundThe Zimbabwean national prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission (PMTCT) program provided primarily single-dose nevirapine (sdNVP) from 2002-2009 and is currently replacing sdNVP with more effective antiretroviral (ARV) regimens.MethodsPublished HIV and PMTCT models, with local trial and programmatic data, were used to simulate a cohort of HIV-infected, pregnant/breastfeeding women in Zimbabwe (mean age 24.0 years, mean CD4 451 cells/µL). We compared five PMTCT regimens at a fixed level of PMTCT medication uptake: 1) no antenatal ARVs (comparator); 2) sdNVP; 3) WHO 2010 guidelines using "Option A" (zidovudine during pregnancy/infant NVP during breastfeeding for women without advanced HIV disease; lifelong 3-drug antiretroviral therapy (ART) for women with advanced disease); 4) WHO "Option B" (ART during pregnancy/breastfeeding without advanced disease; lifelong ART with advanced disease); and 5) "Option B+:" lifelong ART for all pregnant/breastfeeding, HIV-infected women. Pediatric (4-6 week and 18-month infection risk, 2-year survival) and maternal (2- and 5-year survival, life expectancy from delivery) outcomes were projected.ResultsEighteen-month pediatric infection risks ranged from 25.8% (no antenatal ARVs) to 10.9% (Options B/B+). Although maternal short-term outcomes (2- and 5-year survival) varied only slightly by regimen, maternal life expectancy was reduced after receipt of sdNVP (13.8 years) or Option B (13.9 years) compared to no antenatal ARVs (14.0 years), Option A (14.0 years), or Option B+ (14.5 years).ConclusionsReplacement of sdNVP with currently recommended regimens for PMTCT (WHO Options A, B, or B+) is necessary to reduce infant HIV infection risk in Zimbabwe. The planned transition to Option A may also improve both pediatric and maternal outcomes.
| S-EPMC3107213 | biostudies-literature
Project description:PROBLEM: Zimbabwe has one of the highest rates of HIV seroprevalence in the world. In 2001 only 4% of women and children in need of services for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV were receiving them. DESIGN: Pilot implementation of the first programme for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV in rural Zimbabwe. SETTING: 120 bed district hospital in Buhera district (285,000 inhabitants), Manicaland, Zimbabwe. KEY MEASURES FOR IMPROVEMENT: Programme uptake indicators monitored for 18 months; impact of policy evaluated by assessing up-scaling of programme. STRATEGIES FOR CHANGE: Voluntary counselling and testing services for HIV were provided in the hospital antenatal clinic. Women identified as HIV positive and informed of their serostatus and their newborn were offered a single dose antiretroviral treatment of nevirapine; mother-child pairs were followed up through routine health services. Nursing staff and social workers were trained, and community mobilisation was conducted. EFFECTS OF CHANGE: No services for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV were available at baseline. Within 18 months, 2298 pregnant women had received pretest counselling, and the acceptance of HIV testing reached 93.0%. Of all 2137 women who had an HIV test, 1588 (74.3%) returned to collect their result; 326 of the 437 HIV positive women diagnosed had post-test counselling, and 104 (24%) mother-child pairs received nevirapine prophylaxis. LESSONS LEARNT: Minimum staffing, an enhanced training programme, and involvement of district health authorities are needed for the implementation and successful integration of services for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV. Voluntary counselling and testing services are important entry points for HIV prevention and care and for referral to community networks and medical HIV care services. A district approach is critical to extend programmes for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV in rural settings. The lessons learnt from this pilot programme have contributed to the design of the national expansion strategy for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV in Zimbabwe.
| S-EPMC527692 | biostudies-other
Project description:BACKGROUND:Despite a growing body of literature on HIV service costs in sub-Saharan Africa, only a few studies have estimated the facility-level cost of prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) services, and even fewer provide insights into the variation of PMTCT costs across facilities. In this study, we present the first empirical costs estimation of the accelerated program for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Zimbabwe and investigate the determinants of heterogeneity of the facility-level average cost per service. To understand such variation, we explored the association between average costs per service and supply-and demand-side characteristics, and quality of services. One aspect of the supply-side we explore carefully is the scale of production-which we define as the annual number of women tested or the yearly number of HIV-positive women on prophylaxis. METHODS:We collected rich data on the costs and PMTCT services provided by 157 health facilities out of 699 catchment areas in five provinces in Zimbabwe for 2013. In each health facility, we measured total costs and the number of women covered with PMTCT services and estimated the average cost per woman tested and the average cost per woman on either ARV prophylaxis or ART. We refer to these facility-level average costs per service as unitary costs. We also collected information on potential determinants of the variation of unitary costs. On the supply-side, we gathered data on the scale of production, staff composition and on the types of antenatal and family planning services provided. On the demand side, we measured the total population at the catchment area and surveyed eligible pairs of mothers and infants about previous use of HIV testing and prenatal care, and on the HIV status of both mothers and infants. We explored the determinants of unitary cost variation using a two-stage linear regression strategy. RESULTS:The average annual total cost of the PMTCT program per facility was US$16,821 (median US$8,920). The average cost per pregnant woman tested was US$80 (median US$47), and the average cost per HIV-positive pregnant woman initiated on ARV prophylaxis or treatment was US$786 annually (median US$420). We found substantial heterogeneity of unitary costs across facilities regardless of facility type. The scale of production was a strong predictor of unitary costs variation across facilities, with a negative and statistically significant correlation between the two variables (p<0.01). CONCLUSIONS:These findings are the first empirical estimations of PMTCT costs in Zimbabwe. Unitary costs were found to be heterogeneous across health facilities, with evidence consistent with economies of scale.
| S-EPMC7239451 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Zimbabwe has made large strides in addressing HIV. To ensure a continued robust response, a clear understanding of costs associated with its HIV program is critical. We conducted a cross-sectional evaluation in 2017 to estimate the annual average patient cost for accessing Prevention of Mother-To-Child Transmission (PMTCT) services (through antenatal care) and Antiretroviral Treatment (ART) services in Zimbabwe. Twenty sites representing different types of public health facilities in Zimbabwe were included. Data on patient costs were collected through in-person interviews with 414 ART and 424 PMTCT adult patients and through telephone interviews with 38 ART and 47 PMTCT adult patients who had missed their last appointment. The mean and median annual patient costs were examined overall and by service type for all participants and for those who paid any cost. Potential patient costs related to time lost were calculated by multiplying the total time to access services (travel time, waiting time, and clinic visit duration) by potential earnings (US$75 per month assuming 8 hours per day and 5 days per week). Mean annual patient costs for accessing services for the participants was US$20.00 [standard deviation (SD) = US$80.42, median = US$6.00, range = US$0.00-US$12,18.00] for PMTCT and US$18.73 (SD = US$58.54, median = US$8.00, range = US$0.00-US$ 908.00) for ART patients. The mean annual direct medical costs for PMTCT and ART were US$9.78 (SD = US$78.58, median = US$0.00, range = US$0.00-US$ 90) and US$7.49 (SD = US$60.00, median = US$0.00) while mean annual direct non-medical cost for US$10.23 (SD = US$17.35, median = US$4.00) and US$11.23 (SD = US$25.22, median = US$6.00, range = US$0.00-US$ 360.00). The PMTCT and ART costs per visit based on time lost were US$3.53 (US$1.13 to US$8.69) and US$3.43 (US$1.14 to US$8.53), respectively. The mean annual patient costs per person for PMTCT and ART in this evaluation will impact household income since PMTCT and ART services in Zimbabwe are supposed to be free.
| S-EPMC8372940 | biostudies-literature
Project description:To estimate the cost-effectiveness of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV with lifelong antiretroviral therapy (ART) for pregnant and breastfeeding women ('Option B+') compared with ART during pregnancy or breastfeeding only unless clinically indicated ('Option B').Mathematical modelling study of first and second pregnancy, informed by data from the Malawi Option B+ programme.Individual-based simulation model. We simulated cohorts of 10?000 women and their infants during two subsequent pregnancies, including the breastfeeding period, with either Option B+ or B. We parameterized the model with data from the literature and by analysing programmatic data. We compared total costs of antenatal and postnatal care, and lifetime costs and disability-adjusted life-years of the infected infants between Option B+ and Option B.During the first pregnancy, 15% of the infants born to HIV-infected mothers acquired the infection. With Option B+, 39% of the women were on ART at the beginning of the second pregnancy, compared with 18% with Option B. For second pregnancies, the rates MTCT were 11.3% with Option B+ and 12.3% with Option B. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio comparing the two options ranged between about US$ 500 and US$ 1300 per DALY averted.Option B+ prevents more vertical transmissions of HIV than Option B, mainly because more women are already on ART at the beginning of the next pregnancy. Option B+ is a cost-effective strategy for PMTCT if the total future costs and lost lifetime of the infected infants are taken into account.
| S-EPMC5359470 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundThe reproductive health and Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV programs in Iran were integrated as a pilot project in September 2014. This study aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation and analysis of the PMTCT of HIV program in Iran.MethodsThe pilot phase of PMTCT of HIV was launched in early September 2014 in selected centers including 170 health centers and 40 hospitals affiliated to medical universities of 16 provinces of Iran. In each medical university, a researcher-made checklist was administered to all newly-diagnosed HIV-positive pregnant women by an AIDS expert. Data was analyzed using SPSS 19.ResultsOverall, 69.4% of eligible pregnant women were enrolled in the pilot phase. From 134 reactive cases, 76 (56.7%) were confirmed as HIV positive. ARV consumption was irregular in 10 (13.2%) of HIV positive pregnant women. Also, 82.5% had CD4 count more than 350 after treatment, with an average of 55.5% increase in the number of CD4 in comparison to the baseline, and 84.8% had viral load suppression (< 200 copies/ml). Counseling and testing was done for the husbands of 75% of the women that resulted in the identification of 15 (39.5%) new HIV cases among husbands. Among the tested individuals, 23 (60.5%) males already knew their HIV status and were registered as HIV patients. HIV was diagnosed in one (1.5%) newborn.ConclusionImplementation of rapid HIV testing and PMTCT in Iran is one of the strengths of the national HIV control program. To eliminate MTCT, it is necessary to understand and overcome the barriers and challenges to the program in the pilot phase.
| S-EPMC7948351 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundAlthough Option B+ may be more costly than Options B, it may provide additional health benefits that are currently unclear in Yunnan province. We created deterministic models to estimate the cost-effectiveness of Option B+.MethodsData were used in two deterministic models simulating a cohort of 2000 HIV+ pregnant women. A decision tree model simulated the number of averted infants infections and QALY acquired for infants in the PMTCT period for Options B and B+. The minimum cost was calculated. A Markov decision model simulated the number of maternal life year gained and serodiscordant partner infections averted in the ten years after PMTCT for Option B or B+. ICER per life year gained was calculated. Deterministic sensitivity analyses were conducted.ResultsIf fully implemented, Option B and Option B+ averted 1016.85 infections and acquired 588,01.02 QALYs.The cost of Option B was US$1,229,338.47, the cost of Option B+ was 1,176,128.63. However, when Options B and B+ were compared over ten years, Option B+ not only improved mothers'ten-year survival from 69.7 to 89.2%, saving more than 3890 life-years, but also averted 3068 HIV infections between serodiscordant partners. Option B+ yielded a favourable ICER of $32.99per QALY acquired in infants and $5149per life year gained in mothers. A 1% MTCT rate, a 90% coverage rate and a 20-year horizon could decrease the ICER per QALY acquired in children and LY gained in mothers.ConclusionsOption B+ is a cost-effective treatment for comprehensive HIV prevention for infants and serodiscordant partners and life-long treatment for mothers in Yunnan province, China. Option B+ could be implemented in Yunnan province, especially as the goals of elimination mother-to-child transmission of HIV and "90-90-90" achieved, Option B+ would be more attractive.
| S-EPMC6560771 | biostudies-literature
Project description:IntroductionHigh retention in care is paramount to reduce vertical human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections in prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programmes but remains low in many sub-Saharan African countries. We aimed to assess the effects of community health worker-based defaulter tracing (CHW-DT) on retention in care and mother-to-child HIV transmission, an innovative approach that has not been evaluated to date.MethodsWe analyzed patient records of 1878 HIV-positive pregnant women and their newborns in a rural PMTCT programme in the Tsholotsho district of Zimbabwe between 2010 and 2013 in a retrospective cohort study. Using binomial regression, we compared vertical HIV transmission rates at six weeks post-partum, and retention rates during the perinatal PMTCT period (at delivery, nevirapine [NVP] initiation at three days post-partum, cotrimoxazole (CTX) initiation at six weeks post-partum, and HIV testing at six weeks post-partum) before and after the introduction of CHW-DT in the project.ResultsMedian maternal age was 27 years (inter-quartile range [IQR] 23 to 32) and median CD4 count was 394 cells/µL(3) (IQR 257 to 563). The covariate-adjusted rate ratio (aRR) for perinatal HIV transmission was 0.72 (95% confidence intervals [95% CI] 0.27 to 1.96, p=0.504), comparing patient outcomes after and before the intervention. Among fully retained patients, 11 (1.9%) newborns tested HIV positive. ARRs for retention in care were 1.01 (95% CI 0.96 to 1.06, p=0.730) at delivery; 1.35 (95% CI 1.28 to 1.42, p<0.001) at NVP initiation; 1.78 (95% CI 1.58 to 2.01, p<0.001) at CTX initiation; and 2.54 (95% CI 2.20 to 2.93, p<0.001) at infant HIV testing. Cumulative retention after and before the intervention was 496 (85.7%) and 1083 (87.3%) until delivery; 480 (82.9%) and 1005 (81.0%) until NVP initiation; 303 (52.3%) and 517 (41.7%) until CTX initiation; 272 (47.0%) and 427 (34.4%) until infant HIV testing; and 172 (29.7%) and 405 (32.6%) until HIV test result collection.ConclusionsThe CHW-DT intervention did not reduce perinatal HIV transmission significantly. Retention improved moderately during the post-natal period, but cumulative retention decreased rapidly even after the intervention. We showed that transmission in resource-limited settings can be as low as in resource-rich countries if patients are fully retained in care. This requires structural changes to the regular PMTCT services, in which community health workers can, at best, play a complementary role.
| S-EPMC4604210 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of cytomegalovirus (CMV) occurs transplacentally (congenital infection), during birth and through breast milk, although the latter 2 modes of transmission are not associated with the central nervous system sequelae that occur with congenital infection. CMV persists indefinitely in its human host, and MTCT can occur if the mother was infected in the past or during the current pregnancy. The goal of efforts to prevent MTCT of CMV is to prevent congenital infection, an important cause of disability due to hearing loss, impaired vision, cognitive impairment, and neuromotor deficits. Vaccines for prevention of maternal and congenital CMV infection are being developed but will not likely be available for at least a decade. Rather than waiting for an effective vaccine to solve the problem, more effort must be devoted to defining the potential for public health measures to prevent congenital CMV infection by reducing rates of maternal infection during pregnancy.
| S-EPMC4164178 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Recent data from the Manicaland HIV/STD Prevention Project, a general-population open HIV cohort study, suggested that between 2004 and 2007 HIV prevalence amongst males aged 15-17 years in eastern Zimbabwe increased from 1.20% to 2.23%, and in females remained unchanged at 2.23% to 2.39%, while prevalence continued to decline in the rest of the adult population. We assess whether the more likely source of the increase in adolescent HIV prevalence is recent sexual HIV acquisition, or the aging of long-term survivors of perinatal HIV acquisition that occurred during the early growth of the epidemic. Using data collected between August 2006 and November 2008, we investigated associations between adolescent HIV and (1) maternal orphanhood and maternal HIV status, (2) reported sexual behaviour, and (3) reporting recurring sickness or chronic illness, suggesting infected adolescents might be in a late stage of HIV infection. HIV-infected adolescent males were more likely to be maternal orphans (RR = 2.97, p<0.001) and both HIV-infected adolescent males and females were more likely to be maternal orphans or have an HIV-infected mother (male RR = 1.83, p<0.001; female RR = 16.6, p<0.001). None of 22 HIV-infected adolescent males and only three of 23 HIV-infected females reported ever having had sex. HIV-infected adolescents were 60% more likely to report illness than HIV-infected young adults. Taken together, all three hypotheses suggest that recent increases in adolescent HIV prevalence in eastern Zimbabwe are more likely attributable to long-term survival of mother-to-child transmission rather than increases in risky sexual behaviour. HIV prevalence in adolescents and young adults cannot be used as a surrogate for recent HIV incidence, and health systems should prepare for increasing numbers of long-term infected adolescents.
| S-EPMC3737189 | biostudies-literature