ABSTRACT: Sterile particles induce robust inflammatory responses that underlie the pathogenesis of diseases like silicosis, gout, and atherosclerosis. A key cytokine mediating this response is IL-1?. The generation of bioactive IL-1? by sterile particles is mediated by the NOD-like receptor containing a pyrin domain 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, although exactly how this occurs is incompletely resolved. Prior studies have found that the cathepsin B inhibitor, Ca074Me, suppresses this response, supporting a model whereby ingested particles disrupt lysosomes and release cathepsin B into the cytosol, somehow activating NLRP3. However, reports that cathepsin B-deficient macrophages have no defect in particle-induced IL-1? generation have questioned cathepsin B's involvement. In this study, we examine the hypothesis that multiple redundant cathepsins (not just cathepsin B) mediate this process by evaluating IL-1? generation in murine macrophages, singly or multiply deficient in cathepsins B, L, C, S and X. Using an activity-based probe, we measure specific cathepsin activity in living cells, documenting compensatory changes in cathepsin-deficient cells, and Ca074Me's dose-dependent cathepsin inhibition profile is analyzed in parallel with its suppression of particle-induced IL-1? secretion. Also, we evaluate endogenous cathepsin inhibitors cystatins C and B. Surprisingly, we find that multiple redundant cathepsins, inhibited by Ca074Me and cystatins, promote pro-IL-1? synthesis, and to our knowledge, we provide the first evidence that cathepsin X plays a nonredundant role in nonparticulate NLRP3 activation. Finally, we find cathepsin inhibitors selectively block particle-induced NLRP3 activation, independently of suppressing pro-IL-1? synthesis. Altogether, we demonstrate that both small molecule and endogenous cathepsin inhibitors suppress particle-induced IL-1? secretion, implicating roles for multiple cathepsins in both pro-IL-1? synthesis and NLRP3 activation.
