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Electric shock causes physiological stress responses in shore crabs, consistent with prediction of pain.

ABSTRACT: Animal pain is defined by a series of expectations or criteria, one of which is that there should be a physiological stress response associated with noxious stimuli. While crustacean stress responses have been demonstrated they are typically preceded by escape behaviour and thus the physiological change might be attributed to the behaviour rather than a pain experience. We found higher levels of stress as measured by lactate in shore crabs exposed to brief electric shock than non-shocked controls. However, shocked crabs showed more vigorous behaviour than controls. We then matched crabs with the same level of behaviour and still found that shocked crabs had stronger stress response compared with controls. The finding of the stress response, coupled with previous findings of long-term motivational change and avoidance learning, fulfils the criteria expected of a pain experience.

SUBMITTER: Elwood RW

PROVIDER: S-EPMC4685546 | biostudies-literature | 2015 Nov

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

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Electric shock causes physiological stress responses in shore crabs, consistent with prediction of pain.

Elwood Robert W RW Adams Laura L

Biology letters 20151101 11

Animal pain is defined by a series of expectations or criteria, one of which is that there should be a physiological stress response associated with noxious stimuli. While crustacean stress responses have been demonstrated they are typically preceded by escape behaviour and thus the physiological change might be attributed to the behaviour rather than a pain experience. We found higher levels of stress as measured by lactate in shore crabs exposed to brief electric shock than non-shocked control ...[more]

PMID: 26559514

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Project description:BACKGROUND:The parasitic dinoflagellates of the genus Hematodinium represent the causative agent of so-called bitter or pink crab disease in a broad range of shellfish taxa. Outbreaks of Hematodinium-associated disease can devastate local fishing and aquaculture efforts. The goal of our study was to examine the potential role of the common shore (green) crab Carcinus maenas as a reservoir for Hematodinium. Carcinus maenas is native to all shores of the UK and Ireland and the North East Atlantic but has been introduced to, and subsequently invaded waters of, the USA, South Africa and Australia. This species is notable for its capacity to harbour a range of micro- and macro-parasites, and therefore may act as a vector for disease transfer. METHODS:Over a 12-month period, we interrogated 1191 crabs across two distinct locations (intertidal pier, semi-closed dock) in Swansea Bay (Wales, UK) for the presence and severity of Hematodinium in the haemolymph, gills, hepatopancreas and surrounding waters (eDNA) using PCR-based methods, haemolymph preparations and histopathology. RESULTS:Overall, 13.6% were Hematodinium-positive via PCR and confirmed via tissue examination. Only a small difference was observed between locations with 14.4% and 12.8% infected crabs in the Dock and Pier, respectively. Binomial logistic regression models revealed seasonality (P?<?0.002) and sex (P?<?0.001) to be significant factors in Hematodinium detection with peak infection recorded in spring (March to May). Male crabs overall were more likely to be infected. Phylogenetic analyses of the partial ITS and 18S rRNA gene regions of Hematodinium amplified from crabs determined the causative agent to be the host generalist Hematodinium sp., which blights several valuable crustaceans in the UK alone, including edible crabs (Cancer pagurus) and langoustines (Nephrops norvegicus). CONCLUSIONS:Shore crabs were infected with the host generalist parasite Hematodinium sp. in each location tested, thereby enabling the parasite to persist in an environment shared with commercially important shellfish.

Project description:Willows are widely planted in areas under risk of flooding. The physiological responses of willows to flooding have been characterized, but little is known about their responses during the post-flooding period. After the end of the stress episode, plants may modify some traits to compensate for the biomass loss during flooding. The aim of this work was to analyze the post-flooding physiological responses of willow under two different depths of stagnant floodwater. Cuttings of Salix matsudana NZ692 clone were planted in pots in a greenhouse. The experiment started when the plants were 2 months old with the following treatments: Control plants (watered to field capacity); plants partially flooded 10 cm above soil level (F10) and plants partially flooded 40 cm above soil level (F40). The flooding episode lasted 35 days and was followed by a recovery period of 28 days (post-flooding period). After the flooding period, height, diameter and total biomass were higher in F10, while F40 plants showed an increase in plant adventitious root production and leaf nitrogen content. During the post-flooding period, the photosynthetic rate, nitrogen, chlorophyll and soluble sugar contents were significantly higher in leaves of F40 than in Control and F10 treatments. Stomatal conductance and specific leaf area were higher in the previously flooded plants compared to Control treatment. Plants from F10 treatments showed a higher growth in height, root-to-shoot ratio, and carbon isotope discrimination than F40, while the opposite occurred for growth in diameter, vessel size and leaf area. We conclude that depth of floodwater not only causes different responses during flooding, but that its effects are also present in the post-flooding recovery period, affecting the growth and physiology of willows once the stress episode has ended. Even when flooding impacted growth negatively in F40, in the post-flooding period these plants compensated by increasing the photosynthetic rate, plant leaf area and xylem vessel size. Willows endurance to flooding is the result of both responses during flooding, and plastic responses during post-flooding.

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Electric shock causes physiological stress responses in shore crabs, consistent with prediction of pain.

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Electric shock causes physiological stress responses in shore crabs, consistent with prediction of pain.

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