Do Participatory Learning and Action Women's Groups Alone or Combined with Cash or Food Transfers Expand Women's Agency in Rural Nepal?
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ABSTRACT:
SUBMITTER: Gram L
PROVIDER: S-EPMC6540743 | biostudies-literature | 2019
REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature
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Do Participatory Learning and Action Women's Groups Alone or Combined with Cash or Food Transfers Expand Women's Agency in Rural Nepal?
Gram Lu L Morrison Joanna J Saville Naomi N Yadav Shyam Sundar SS Shrestha Bhim B Manandhar Dharma D Costello Anthony A Skordis-Worrall Jolene J
The journal of development studies 20180320 8
Participatory learning and action women's groups (PLA) have proven effective in reducing neonatal mortality in rural, high-mortality settings, but their impacts on women's agency in the household remain unknown. Cash transfer programmes have also long targeted female beneficiaries in the belief that this empowers women. Drawing on data from 1309 pregnant women in a four-arm cluster-randomised controlled trial in Nepal, we found little evidence for an impact of PLA alone or combined with uncondit ...[more]
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Project description:BackgroundThere is scarce evidence on the impacts of food transfers, cash transfers, or women's groups on food sharing, dietary intakes, or nutrition during pregnancy, when nutritional needs are elevated.ObjectiveThis study measured the effects of 3 pregnancy-focused nutrition interventions on intrahousehold food allocation, dietary adequacy, and maternal nutritional status in Nepal.MethodsInterventions tested in a cluster-randomized controlled trial (ISRCTN 75964374) were "Participatory Learning and Action" (PLA) monthly women's groups, PLA with transfers of 10 kg fortified flour ("Super Cereal"), and PLA plus transfers of 750 Nepalese rupees (∼US$7.5) to pregnant women. Control clusters received usual government services. Primary outcomes were Relative Dietary Energy Adequacy Ratios (RDEARs) between pregnant women and male household heads and pregnant women and their mothers-in-law. Diets were measured by repeated 24-h dietary recalls.ResultsRelative to control, RDEARs between pregnant women and their mothers-in-law were 12% higher in the PLA plus food arm (log-RDEAR coefficient = 0.12; 95% CI: 0.02, 0.21; P = 0.014), but 10% lower in the PLA-only arm between pregnant women and male household heads (-0.11; 95% CI: -0.19, -0.02; P = 0.020). In all interventions, pregnant women's energy intakes did not improve, but odds of pregnant women consuming iron-folate supplements were 2.5-4.6 times higher, odds of pregnant women consuming more animal-source foods than the household head were 1.7-2.4 times higher, and midupper arm circumference was higher relative to control. Dietary diversity was 0.4 food groups higher in the PLA plus cash arm than in the control arm.ConclusionsAll interventions improved maternal diets and nutritional status in pregnancy. PLA women's groups with food transfers increased equity in energy allocation, whereas PLA with cash improved dietary diversity. PLA alone improved diets, but effects were mixed. Scale-up of these interventions in marginalized populations is a policy option, but researchers should find ways to increase adherence to interventions. This trial was registered at www.controlled-trials.com as ISRCTN 75964374.
| S-EPMC6118166 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundUndernutrition during pregnancy leads to low birthweight, poor growth and inter-generational undernutrition. We did a non-blinded cluster-randomised controlled trial in the plains districts of Dhanusha and Mahottari, Nepal to assess the impact on birthweight and weight-for-age z-scores among children aged 0-16 months of community-based participatory learning and action (PLA) women's groups, with and without food or cash transfers to pregnant women.MethodsWe randomly allocated 20 clusters per arm to four arms (average population/cluster = 6150). All consenting married women aged 10-49 years, who had not had tubal ligation and whose husbands had not had vasectomy, were monitored for missed menses. Between 29 Dec 2013 and 28 Feb 2015 we recruited 25,092 pregnant women to surveillance and interventions: PLA alone (n = 5626); PLA plus food (10 kg/month of fortified wheat-soya 'Super Cereal', n = 6884); PLA plus cash (NPR750≈US$7.5/month, n = 7272); control (existing government programmes, n = 5310). 539 PLA groups discussed and implemented strategies to improve low birthweight, nutrition in pregnancy and hand washing. Primary outcomes were birthweight within 72 hours of delivery and weight-for-age z-scores at endline (age 0-16 months). Only children born to permanent residents between 4 June 2014 and 20 June 2015 were eligible for intention to treat analyses (n = 10936), while in-migrating women and children born before interventions had been running for 16 weeks were excluded. Trial status: completed.ResultsIn PLA plus food/cash arms, 94-97% of pregnant women attended groups and received a mean of four transfers over their pregnancies. In the PLA only arm, 49% of pregnant women attended groups. Due to unrest, the response rate for birthweight was low at 22% (n = 2087), but response rate for endline nutritional and dietary measures exceeded 83% (n = 9242). Compared to the control arm (n = 464), mean birthweight was significantly higher in the PLA plus food arm by 78·0 g (95% CI 13·9, 142·0; n = 626) and not significantly higher in PLA only and PLA plus cash arms by 28·9 g (95% CI -37·7, 95·4; n = 488) and 50·5 g (95% CI -15·0, 116·1; n = 509) respectively. Mean weight-for-age z-scores of children aged 0-16 months (average age 9 months) sampled cross-sectionally at endpoint, were not significantly different from those in the control arm (n = 2091). Differences in weight for-age z-score were as follows: PLA only -0·026 (95% CI -0·117, 0·065; n = 2095); PLA plus cash -0·045 (95% CI -0·133, 0·044; n = 2545); PLA plus food -0·033 (95% CI -0·121, 0·056; n = 2507). Amongst many secondary outcomes tested, compared with control, more institutional deliveries (OR: 1.46 95% CI 1.03, 2.06; n = 2651) and less colostrum discarding (OR:0.71 95% CI 0.54, 0.93; n = 2548) were found in the PLA plus food arm but not in PLA alone or in PLA plus cash arms.InterpretationFood supplements in pregnancy with PLA women's groups increased birthweight more than PLA plus cash or PLA alone but differences were not sustained. Nutrition interventions throughout the thousand-day period are recommended.Trial registrationISRCTN75964374.
| S-EPMC5942768 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Women's groups practicing participatory learning and action (PLA) in rural areas have been shown to improve maternal and newborn survival in low-income countries, but the pathways from intervention to impact remain unclear. We assessed the long-term impact of a PLA intervention in rural Nepal on women's agency in the household. In 2014, we conducted a follow-up study to a cluster randomised controlled trial on the impact of PLA women's groups from 2001-2003. Agency was measured using the Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) and its subdomains. Multi-level regression analyses were performed adjusting for baseline socio-demographic characteristics. We additionally adjusted for potential exposure to subsequent PLA groups based on women's pregnancy status and conduct of PLA groups in areas of residence. Sensitivity analyses were performed using two alternative measures of agency. We analysed outcomes for 4030 mothers (66% of the cohort) who survived and were recruited to follow-up at mean age 39.6 years. Across a wide range of model specifications, we found no association between exposure to the original PLA intervention with women's agency in the household approximately 11.5 years later. Subsequent exposure to PLA groups was not associated with greater agency in the household at follow-up, but some specifications found evidence for reduced agency. Household agency may be a prerequisite for actualising the benefits of PLA groups rather than a consequence.
| S-EPMC5951552 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BACKGROUND:There is a need for studies evaluating maternal health interventions in low-income countries. This paper evaluates one such intervention designed to promote maternal health among rural women in Nepal. METHODS AND RESULTS:This was a five-year controlled, non-randomised, repeated cross-sectional study (2007, 2010, 2012) of a participatory community-based maternal health promotion intervention focusing on women's groups to improve maternal health services uptake. In total 1,236 women of childbearing age, who had their last child ? two years ago, were interviewed. Difference-in-Difference estimation assessed the effects of the intervention on selected outcome variables while controlling for a constructed wealth index and women's characteristics. In the first three years (from 2007 to the 2010), the intervention increased women's likelihood of attending for antenatal care at least once during pregnancy by seven times [OR = 7.0, 95%CI (2.3; 21.4)], of taking iron and folic acid by three times [OR = 3.0, 95%CI (1.2; 7.8)], and of seeking four or more antenatal care visits of two times, although not significantly [OR = 2.2, 95%CI (1.0; 4.7)]. Over five years, women were more likely to seek antenatal care at least once [OR = 3.0, 95%CI (1.5; 5.2)], to take iron/folic acid [OR = 1.9, [95% CI (1.1; 3.2)], and to attend postnatal care [OR = 1.5, [95% CI (1.1; 2.2)]. No improvement was found on attending antenatal care in the first trimester, birthing at an institution or with a skilled birth attendant. CONCLUSION:Community-based health promotion has a much stronger effect on the uptake of antenatal care and less on delivery care. Other factors not easily resolved through health promotion interventions may influence these outcomes, such as costs or geographical constraints. The evaluation has implications for policy and practice in public health, especially maternal health promotion.
| S-EPMC4877042 | biostudies-literature
Project description:ObjectiveTo assess the differential impact of a copayment exemption compared to a cash incentive on increasing skilled birth attendance (i.e., birth attended by a skilled health worker) in Nepal.Data sources/study settingThis study used data on 8,785 children born between July 2005 and December 2008, obtained from the nationally representative Demographic and Health Surveys, 2006 and 2011.Study designTwenty-five districts received both the policy interventions, and the remaining 50 control districts received only the cash incentive. We employed a difference-in-differences model to compare children born in districts with both interventions to those in districts with conditional cash transfers only. Average marginal effects of the difference-in-difference coefficient on skilled birth attendance measures are estimated.Principal findingsSkilled birth attendance in districts with both interventions was no higher on average than in districts with only the cash incentive. In areas with adequate road networks, however, significantly higher skilled birth attendance was observed in districts with both interventions compared to those with only the cash incentive.ConclusionsThe added incentive of the user-fee exemption did not significantly increase skilled birth attendance relative to the presence of the cash incentive. User-fee exemptions may not be effective in areas with inadequate road infrastructure.
| S-EPMC5517670 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundTo strengthen the impact of cash transfers, these interventions have begun to be packaged as cash-plus programmes, combining cash with additional transfers, interventions, or services. The intervention's complementary ("plus") components aim to improve cash transfer effectiveness by targeting mediating outcomes or the availability of supplies or services. This study examined whether cash-plus interventions for infants and children <5 are more effective than cash alone in improving health and well-being.Methods and findingsForty-two databases, donor agencies, grey literature sources, and trial registries were systematically searched, yielding 5,097 unique articles (as of 06 April 2021). Randomised and quasi-experimental studies were eligible for inclusion if the intervention package aimed to improve outcomes for children <5 in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and combined a cash transfer with an intervention targeted to Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2 (No Hunger), SDG3 (Good Health and Well-being), SDG4 (Education), or SDG16 (Violence Prevention), had at least one group receiving cash-only, examined outcomes related to child-focused SDGs, and was published in English. Risk of bias was appraised using Cochrane Risk of Bias and ROBINS-I Tools. Random effects meta-analyses were conducted for a cash-plus intervention category when there were at least 3 trials with the same outcome. The review was preregistered with PROSPERO (CRD42018108017). Seventeen studies were included in the review and 11 meta-analysed. Most interventions operated during the first 1,000 days of the child's life and were conducted in communities facing high rates of poverty and often, food insecurity. Evidence was found for 10 LMICs, where most researchers used randomised, longitudinal study designs (n = 14). Five intervention categories were identified, combining cash with nutrition behaviour change communication (BCC, n = 7), food transfers (n = 3), primary healthcare (n = 2), psychosocial stimulation (n = 7), and child protection (n = 4) interventions. Comparing cash-plus to cash alone, meta-analysis results suggest Cash + Food Transfers are more effective in improving height-for-age (d = 0.08 SD (0.03, 0.14), p = 0.02) with significantly reduced odds of stunting (OR = 0.82 (0.74, 0.92), p = 0.01), but had no added impact in improving weight-for-height (d = -0.13 (-0.42, 0.16), p = 0.24) or weight-for-age z-scores (d = -0.06 (-0.28, 0.15), p = 0.43). There was no added impact above cash alone from Cash + Nutrition BCC on anthropometrics; Cash + Psychosocial Stimulation on cognitive development; or Cash + Child Protection on parental use of violent discipline or exclusive positive parenting. Narrative synthesis evidence suggests that compared to cash alone, Cash + Primary Healthcare may have greater impacts in reducing mortality and Cash + Food Transfers in preventing acute malnutrition in crisis contexts. The main limitations of this review are the few numbers of studies that compared cash-plus interventions against cash alone and the potentially high heterogeneity between study findings.ConclusionsIn this study, we observed that few cash-plus combinations were more effective than cash transfers alone. Cash combined with food transfers and primary healthcare show the greatest signs of added effectiveness. More research is needed on when and how cash-plus combinations are more effective than cash alone, and work in this field must ensure that these interventions improve outcomes among the most vulnerable children.
| S-EPMC8478252 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BACKGROUND:Empirical evidence suggests that the uptake of maternal and child health (MCH) services is still low in poor rural areas of China. There is concern that this low uptake may detrimentally affect child health outcomes. Previous studies have not yet identified the exact nature of the impact that a conditional cash transfer (CCT) has on the uptake of MCH services and, ultimately, on child health outcomes. The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between CCT, uptake of MCH services, and health outcomes among children in poor rural areas of western China. METHODS:We designated two different sets of villages and households that were used as comparisons against which outcomes of the treated households could be assessed. In 2014, we conducted a large-scale survey of 1522 households in 75 villages (including 25 treatment and 50 comparison) from nine nationally designated poverty counties in two provinces of China. In each village, 21 households were selected based on their eligibility status for the CCT program. Difference-in-difference analyses were used to assess the impact of CCT on outcomes in terms of both intention-to-treat (ITT) and average-treatment-effects-on-the-treated (ATT). RESULTS:Overall, the uptake of MCH services in the sample households were low, especially in terms of postpartum care visits, early breastfeeding, exclusive breastfeeding, and physical examination of the baby. The uptake of the seven types of MCH services in the CCT treatment villages were significantly higher than that in the comparison villages. The results from both the ITT and ATT analyses showed that the CCT program had a positive, although small, impact on the uptake of MCH services and the knowledge of mothers of MCH health issues. Nonetheless, the CCT program had no noticeable effect on child health outcomes. CONCLUSIONS:The CCT program generated modest improvements in the uptake of MCH services and mothers' knowledge of MCH services in poor rural areas of Western China. These improvements, however, did not translate into substantial improvements in child health outcomes for two potential reasons: poor CCT implementation and the low quality of rural health facilities.
| S-EPMC7275386 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundGiven the success of cash programs in improving health outcomes and addressing upstream drivers of HIV risk such as poverty and education, there has been an increasing interest in their potential to improve HIV prevention and care outcomes. Recent reviews have documented the impacts of structural interventions on HIV prevention, but evidence about the effects of cash transfer programs on HIV prevention has not been systematically reviewed for several years.Methods and findingsWe did a systematic review of published and unpublished literature to update and summarize the evidence around cash programs for HIV prevention from January 2000 to December 17, 2020. We included studies with either a cash transfer intervention, savings program, or program to reduce school costs. Included studies measured the program's impact on HIV infection, other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), or sexual behaviors. We screened 1,565 studies and examined 78 in full-text review to identify a total of 45 peer-reviewed publications and reports from 27 different interventions or populations. We did not do a meta-analysis given the range of outcomes and types of cash transfer interventions assessed. Most studies were conducted in sub-Saharan Africa (N = 23; South Africa, Tanzania, Malawi, Lesotho, Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and eSwatini) followed by Mexico (N = 2), the United States (N = 1), and Mongolia (N = 1)). Of the 27 studies, 20 (72%) were randomized trials, 5 (20%) were observational studies, 1 (4%) was a case-control study, and 1 (4%) was quasi-experimental. Most studies did not identify a strong association between the program and sexual behaviors, except sexual debut (10/18 finding an association; 56%). Eight of the 27 studies included HIV biomarkers, but only 3 found a large reduction in HIV incidence or prevalence, and the rest found no statistically significant association. Of the studies that identified a statistically significant association with other STIs (N = 4/8), 2 involved incentives for staying free of the STI, and the other 2 were cash transfer programs for adolescent girls that had conditionalities related to secondary schooling. Study limitations include the small number of studies in key populations and examining interventions to reduce school costs and matched saving programs.ConclusionsThe evidence base for large-scale impacts of cash transfers reducing HIV risk is limited; however, government social protection cash transfer programs and programs that incentivize school attendance among adolescent girls and young women show the greatest promise for HIV prevention.
| S-EPMC8668130 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Despite efforts to reduce under-5 mortality rates worldwide, an estimated 6.6 million under-5 children die every year. Community mobilisation through participatory women's groups has been shown to improve maternal and newborn health in rural settings, but little is known about the potential of this approach to improve care and health in children after the newborn period.Following on from a cluster-randomised controlled trial to assess the effect of participatory women's groups on maternal and neonatal health outcomes in rural Bangladesh, 162 women's groups continued to meet between April 2010 and December 2011 to identify, prioritise and address issues that affect the health of children under 5 years. A controlled before-and-after study design and difference-in-difference analysis was used to assess morbidity outcomes and changes in knowledge and practices related to child feeding, hygiene and care-seeking behaviour.Significant improvements were measured in mothers' knowledge of disease prevention and management, danger signs and hand washing at critical times. Significant increases were seen in exclusive breast feeding for at least 6 months (15.3% (4.2% to 26.5%)), and mean duration of breast feeding (37.9 days (17.4 to 58.3)). Maternal reports of under-5 morbidities fell in intervention compared with control areas, including reports of fever (-10.5% (-15.1% to -6.0%)) and acute respiratory infections (-12.2% (-15.6% to -8.8%)). No differences were observed in dietary diversity scores or immunisation uptake.Community mobilisation through participatory women's groups can be successfully adapted to address health knowledge and practice in relation to child's health, leading to improvements in a number of child health indicators and behaviours.
| S-EPMC4392217 | biostudies-other
Project description:[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110697.].
| S-EPMC5552076 | biostudies-other