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Changes in Endogenous and Exogenous Koala Retrovirus Subtype Expression over Time Reflect Koala Health Outcomes.

ABSTRACT: Koala retrovirus (KoRV) is unique in that it exists as both an exogenous and actively endogenizing gamma retrovirus of koalas. While nine subtypes of KoRV have been recognized, focused study of these subtypes in koalas over time and with different health outcomes has been lacking. Therefore, in this study, three wild koala cohorts were established and monitored to examine KoRV proviral and expression data from koalas that either remained healthy over time, began healthy before developing chlamydial cystitis, or presented with chlamydial cystitis and were treated with antibiotics. Deep sequencing of the proviral KoRV envelope gene revealed KoRV-A, -B, -D, and -F to be the major subtypes in this population and allowed for subtype-specific assays to be created. Quantification of KoRV transcripts revealed that KoRV-D expression mirrored the total KoRV expression levels (106 copies/ml of plasma), with KoRV-A and KoRV-F expression being ∼10-fold less and KoRV-B expression being ∼100-fold less, when detected. Strikingly, there was significantly higher expression of KoRV-D in healthy koalas than in koalas that developed chlamydial cystitis, with healthy koalas expressing a major KoRV-D/minor KoRV-A profile, whereas koalas that developed cystitis had variable KoRV expression profiles. Total anti-KoRV IgG antibody levels were found not to correlate with the expression of total KoRV or any individual KoRV subtype. Finally, KoRV expression was consistent between systemic and mucosal body sites and during antibiotic treatment. Collectively, this gives a comprehensive picture of KoRV dynamics during several important koala health states.IMPORTANCE The long-term survival of the koala is under serious threat, with this iconic marsupial being declared "vulnerable" by the Australian Government and officially listed as a threatened species. KoRV is clearly contributing to the overall health status of koalas, and research into this virus has been lacking detailed study of the multiple subtypes at both the proviral and expressed viral levels over time. By designing new subtype-specific assays and following well-defined koala cohorts over time, this study has generated a new more complete picture of KoRV and its relationship to koala health outcomes in the wild. Only by building a comprehensive picture of KoRV during both koala health and disease can we bring meaningful koala health interventions into better focus.

SUBMITTER: Quigley BL

PROVIDER: S-EPMC6714790 | biostudies-literature |

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

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Project description:Koala populations are in serious decline across many areas of mainland Australia, with infectious disease a contributing factor. Koala retrovirus (KoRV) is a gammaretrovirus present in most wild koala populations and captive colonies. Five subtypes of KoRV (A to E) have been identified based on amino acid sequence divergence in a hypervariable region of the receptor binding domain of the envelope protein. However, analysis of viral genetic diversity has been conducted primarily on KoRV in captive koalas housed in zoos in Japan, the United States, and Germany. Wild koalas within Australia have not been comparably assessed. Here we report a detailed analysis of KoRV genetic diversity in samples collected from 18 wild koalas from southeast Queensland. By employing deep sequencing we identified 108 novel KoRV envelope sequences and determined their phylogenetic diversity. Genetic diversity in KoRV was abundant and fell into three major groups; two comprised the previously identified subtypes A and B, while the third contained the remaining hypervariable region subtypes (C, D, and E) as well as four hypervariable region subtypes that we newly define here (F, G, H, and I). In addition to the ubiquitous presence of KoRV-A, which may represent an exclusively endogenous variant, subtypes B, D, and F were found to be at high prevalence, while subtypes G, H, and I were present in a smaller number of animals. IMPORTANCE:Koala retrovirus (KoRV) is thought to be a significant contributor to koala disease and population decline across mainland Australia. This study is the first to determine KoRV subtype prevalence among a wild koala population, and it significantly expands the total number of KoRV sequences available, providing a more precise picture of genetic diversity. This understanding of KoRV subtype prevalence and genetic diversity will be important for conservation efforts attempting to limit the spread of KoRV. Furthermore, KoRV is one of the only retroviruses shown to exist in both endogenous (transmitted vertically to offspring in the germ line DNA) and exogenous (horizontally transmitted between infected individuals) forms, a division of fundamental evolutionary importance.

Project description:BACKGROUND:Koalas are infected with the koala retrovirus (KoRV) that exists as exogenous or endogenous viruses. KoRV is genetically diverse with co-infection with up to ten envelope subtypes (A-J) possible; KoRV-A is the prototype endogenous form. KoRV-B, first found in a small number of koalas with an increased leukemia prevalence at one US zoo, has been associated with other cancers and increased chlamydial disease. To better understand the molecular epidemiology of KoRV variants and the effect of increased viral loads (VLs) on transmissibility and pathogenicity we developed subtype-specific quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays and tested blood and tissue samples from koalas at US zoos (n?=?78), two Australian zoos (n?=?27) and wild-caught (n?=?21) in Australia. We analyzed PCR results with available clinical, demographic, and pedigree data. RESULTS:All koalas were KoRV-A-infected. A small number of koalas (10.3%) at one US zoo were also infected with non-A subtypes, while a higher non-A subtype prevalence (59.3%) was found in koalas at Australian zoos. Wild koalas from one location were only infected with KoRV-A. We observed a significant association of infection and plasma VLs of non-A subtypes in koalas that died of leukemia/lymphoma and other neoplasias and report cancer diagnoses in KoRV-A-positive animals. Infection and VLs of non-A subtypes was not associated with age or sex. Transmission of non-A subtypes occurred from dam-to-offspring and likely following adult-to-adult contact, but associations with contact type were not evaluated. Brief antiretroviral treatment of one leukemic koala infected with high plasma levels of KoRV-A, -B, and -F did not affect VL or disease progression. CONCLUSIONS:Our results show a significant association of non-A KoRV infection and plasma VLs with leukemia and other cancers. Although we confirm dam-to-offspring transmission of these variants, we also show other routes are possible. Our validated qPCR assays will be useful to further understand KoRV epidemiology and its zoonotic transmission potential for humans exposed to koalas because KoRV can infect human cells.

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Changes in Endogenous and Exogenous Koala Retrovirus Subtype Expression over Time Reflect Koala Health Outcomes.

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