The Science of Salt: A global review on changes in sodium levels in foods.
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ABSTRACT:
SUBMITTER: Santos JA
PROVIDER: S-EPMC8030494 | biostudies-literature |
REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature
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Project description:Strategies to reduce sodium concentrations in packaged foods are effective and cost-effective approaches to reducing the burden of disease attributable to high sodium intakes. This review aimed to comprehensively describe, and explore characteristics of, national strategies to reduce sodium concentrations in packaged foods, and assess progress toward achieving national goals. A secondary aim was to understand the number, type, and variation of food category sodium targets set by countries compared with WHO global sodium benchmarks. National sodium reduction reformulation strategies were identified from a search of peer-reviewed and gray literature up to December 2019 supplemented by verified information from key contacts and experts up to December 2020. Key characteristics of countries' strategies were extracted, synthesized, and descriptively analyzed, including details of reformulation strategies and evaluation data. Country targets were mapped to the WHO global sodium benchmarks, and the number and variation of country sodium targets by WHO food categories were determined. Sixty-two countries had reformulation strategies to reduce sodium in packaged foods, and 19 countries had evaluated their reformulation strategies. Forty-three countries had sodium targets, which varied in type of targets (maximum sodium concentration: n = 26; maximum concentration plus relative reduction/average/sales-weighted average: n = 8; relative reduction: n = 7; average: n = 2), number of food category targets (range: n = 1 to 150), and regulatory approach (voluntary: n = 28; mandatory: n = 9; both: n = 6). Eight of 34 countries mapped to the WHO benchmarks had targets for just 1 specified food category (bread products). One-third of all countries were implementing national strategies to reduce sodium concentrations in packaged foods including establishing targets and/or processes for industry engagement. This review determined that there is scope to improve most countries' strategies. There has been limited progress in implementing and evaluating strategies between 2014 and 2019, and regional and income-level disparities persist. The WHO global sodium benchmarks present an important opportunity to accelerate reformulation action globally.
| S-EPMC9526819 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundSeveral restaurant chains have committed to reducing sodium levels in their foods; however, how much sodium levels have changed over the past few years is unknown. The objective was to measure changes in sodium in restaurant foods from 2010 to 2013.MethodsData for the serving size, calorie and sodium level of 3878 foods were collected from the websites of 61 Canadian restaurant chains in 2010 and 2013. A longitudinal study of changes in sodium levels in foods available from the restaurants in 2010 and 2013 (n = 2198) was conducted. Levels in newly reported and discontinued foods were also investigated.ResultsSodium levels (mg/serving) decreased in 30.1% of foods, increased in 16.3% and were unchanged in 53.6%. The average change in foods with a decrease in sodium was -220 (standard deviation [SD] ± 303) mg/serving (a decline of 19% [SD ± 17%]), whereas the average change in foods with an increase in sodium was 251 (SD ± 349) mg/serving (a 44% [SD ± 104%] increase). The prevalence and magnitude of change varied depending on the restaurant and food category. Overall, there was a small, yet significant, decrease in sodium per serving (-25 [SD ± 268] mg, p < 0.001); however, the percentage of foods exceeding the daily sodium adequate intake (1500 mg) and tolerable upper intake level (2300 mg) remained unchanged.InterpretationThe observed increases and decreases in sodium show that industry efforts to voluntarily decrease sodium levels in Canadian restaurant foods have produced inconsistent results. Although the lower levels in some foods show that sodium reduction is possible, the simultaneous increase in other foods demonstrates the need for targets and timelines for sodium reduction in restaurants.
| S-EPMC4270210 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Diets high in salt are a leading risk for death and disability globally. Taxing unhealthy food is an effective means of influencing what people eat and improving population health. Although there is a growing body of evidence on taxing products high in sugar, and unhealthy foods more broadly, there is limited knowledge or experience of using fiscal measures to reduce salt consumption. We searched peer-reviewed databases [MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews] and gray literature for studies published between January 2000 and October 2019. Studies were included if they provided information on the impact on salt consumption of: taxes on salt; taxes on foods high in salt, and taxes on unhealthy foods defined to include foods high in salt. Studies were excluded if their definition of unhealthy foods did not specify high salt or sodium. We found 18 relevant studies, including 15 studies reporting the effects of salt taxes through modeling (8), real-world evaluation (4), experimental design (2), or review of cost-effectiveness (1); 6 studies providing information relevant to country implementation of salt taxes; and 2 studies reporting stakeholder perceptions toward salt taxation. Although there is some evidence on the potential effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of salt taxation, especially from modeling studies, uptake of salt taxation is limited in practice. Some modeling studies suggested that food taxes can have unintended outcomes such as reduced consumption of healthy foods, or increased consumption of unhealthy, untaxed substitutes. In contrast, modeling studies that combined taxes for unhealthy foods with subsidies found that the benefits were increased. Modeling suggests that taxing all foods based on their salt content is likely to have more impact than taxing specific products high in salt given that salt is pervasive in the food chain. However, the limited experience we found suggests that policy-makers favor taxing specific products.
| S-EPMC7666895 | biostudies-literature
Project description:We tested the hypothesis that reduced-salt versions of four "better-for-you" dishes enhanced with monosodium glutamate (MSG) through a "Salt Flip" in an amount that still substantially reduced total sodium matched the consumer acceptance of normal-salt versions. Three versions each-standard recipe with normal salt, reduced salt, and reduced salt with MSG, of four dishes-roasted vegetables (RV), quinoa bowl (QB), savory yogurt dip (SD), and pork cauliflower fried rice (CR) were evaluated by 163 consumers for overall liking and liking of appearance, flavor, and texture/mouthfeel on the nine-point hedonic scale, preference, adequacy of flavor, saltiness, and aftertaste on just-about-right (JAR) scales, likeliness to order, and sensory characteristics by check-all-that-apply. For each dish, the MSG recipe was liked the same (or significantly more for SD, P < 0.05) than the standard recipe, and better than the reduced salt recipe for QB and CR. The same was true of likeliness to order. MSG recipes of QB and SD were significantly preferred to the standard recipes, with no difference for RV and CR. MSG recipes were consistently described as "delicious," "flavorful," and "balanced." Penalty-lift analysis showed that "delicious," "flavorful," "balanced," "fresh," and "savory"; and "bland," "rancid," and "bitter," were positive and negative drivers of liking, respectively. Two of three uncovered preference clusters, accounting for 68% of consumers, consistently liked MSG recipes, and the same or more so than standard recipes. We conclude that MSG can successfully be used to mitigate salt and sodium reduction without compromising consumer acceptance of better-for-you foods. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The Salt Flip offers a promising dietary sodium reduction strategy through the addition of monosodium glutamate (MSG) to reduced-salt, savory, better-for-you foods that does not compromise consumer acceptance of their sensory profile.
| S-EPMC7540316 | biostudies-literature
Project description:In recent years, there has been a global resurgence of public interest in fermented foods. In parallel, there have been several new studies that associate the consumption of fermented foods with a variety of beneficial impacts. These combined developments have led to a renewed focus in research and innovation vis-à-vis fermented foods, particularly traditional fermented foods, with an aim to harness this information to develop novel fermented foodstuffs and ingredients and make them available in the market. Consequently, an ever greater and more diverse array of fermented foods, including functional fermented foods with health benefits, are becoming available for public consumption in global markets, with the number expected to grow substantially in the coming decade. This rapidly expanding portfolio of commercially available fermented foods has in turn required an evolution in the corresponding global regulatory frameworks. Due to the innovative and emerging nature of these foods, combined with historical differences in regulator approaches, significant disharmony exists across these frameworks, with individual nations and organizations often adopting unique approaches relating to the establishment of standards and specifications. In this review, we provide an overview of the current regulatory frameworks for a diversity of fermented foods across multiple jurisdictions, with special emphasis on differences in legislative structures and approaches, regulatory harmonization, and current legislative limitations. Overall, the review provides important perspective and context in relation to current global fermented food regulatory practices with possible directions and recommendations for future legislative efforts.
| S-EPMC9198641 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundRestaurant foods have high sodium levels, and efforts have been made to promote reductions. The objective of this study was to understand if salt substitutes and enhancers are associated with changes in sodium levels in fast-food restaurants.MethodsA longitudinal database (MENU-FLIP) containing nutrition information for Canadian chain restaurants with 20 or more locations nationally was created in 2010 and updated in 2013 and 2016. In 2016, when available, ingredient lists were collected from restaurant websites and searched for the presence of salt substitutes/enhancers. Changes in sodium levels (per serving) and the prevalence of salt substitutes/enhancers in 222 foods from 12 of the leading fast-food restaurant chains were compared across 3 time points.ResultsSixty-nine percent of foods contained a salt substitute/enhancer. Substitutes/enhancers were found in every restaurant chain (n = 12) for which ingredient data were available. The most common substitutes/enhancers were yeast extracts (in 30% of foods), calcium chloride (28%), monosodium glutamate (14%) and potassium chloride (12%). Sodium levels in foods that contained substitutes/enhancers decreased significantly more (190 ± 42 mg/serving) over the study period than those in foods that did not contain a substitute/enhancer (40 ± 17 mg/serving, p < 0.001).InterpretationSalt substitutes and enhancers are prevalent in restaurant foods and are one means by which restaurants may be lowering sodium levels in their foods. At this time, the potential consequences of these findings, if any, are uncertain.
| S-EPMC5878952 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Decreasing population sodium intake has been identified as a "best buy" for reducing non-communicable disease. The aim of this study was to explore 10-year changes in the sodium content of New Zealand processed foods. Nutrient data for nine key food groups were collected in supermarkets in 2003 (n = 323) and 2013 (n = 885). Mean (SD) and median (min, max) sodium content were calculated by food group, year and label type (private/branded). Paired t-tests explored changes in sodium content for all products available for sale in both years (matched; n = 182). The mean (SD) sodium content of all foods was 436 (263) mg (100 g)(-1) in 2003 and 433 (304) mg (100 g)(-1) in 2013, with no significant difference in matched products over time (mean (SD) difference, -56 (122) mg (100 g)(-1), 12%; p = 0.22). The largest percentage reductions in sodium (for matched products) were observed for Breakfast Cereals (28%; -123 (125) mg (100 g)(-1)), Canned Spaghetti (15%; -76 (111) mg (100 g)(-1)) and Bread (14%; -68 (69) mg (100 g)(-1)). The reduction in sodium was greater for matched private vs. branded foods (-69 vs. -50 mg (100 g)(-1), both p < 0.001). There has been modest progress with sodium reduction in some New Zealand food categories over the past 10 years. A renewed focus across the whole food supply is needed if New Zealand is to meet its global commitment to reducing population sodium intake.
| S-EPMC4488772 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Even though academic research is often viewed as the preferred career path for PhD trained scientists, most U.S. graduates enter careers in industry, government, or "alternative careers." There has been a growing concern that these career patterns reflect fundamental imbalances between the supply of scientists seeking academic positions and the availability of such positions. However, while government statistics provide insights into realized career transitions, there is little systematic data on scientists' career preferences and thus on the degree to which there is a mismatch between observed career paths and scientists' preferences. Moreover, we lack systematic evidence whether career preferences adjust over the course of the PhD training and to what extent advisors exacerbate imbalances by encouraging their students to pursue academic positions. Based on a national survey of PhD students at tier-one U.S. institutions, we provide insights into the career preferences of junior scientists across the life sciences, physics, and chemistry. We also show that the attractiveness of academic careers decreases significantly over the course of the PhD program, despite the fact that advisors strongly encourage academic careers over non-academic careers. Our data provide an empirical basis for common concerns regarding labor market imbalances. Our results also suggest the need for mechanisms that provide PhD applicants with information that allows them to carefully weigh the costs and benefits of pursuing a PhD, as well as for mechanisms that complement the job market advice advisors give to their current students.
| S-EPMC3342243 | biostudies-literature
Project description:A voluntary gradual reduction in the salt content of processed foods was proposed Slovenia in 2010. Our objective was to determine the sodium content of prepacked foods in 2015 and to compare these results with data from 2011. Labelled sodium content and 12-month sales data were collected for prepacked foods (N = 5759) from major food stores in Slovenia. The average and sales-weighted sodium content, as well as the share in total sodium sales (STSS) were calculated for different food category levels, particularly focusing on processed meat and derivatives (STSS: 13.1%; 904 mg Na/100 g), bread (9.1%; 546 mg), cheese (5.1%; 524 mg), and ready-to-eat meals (2.2%; 510 mg). Reduced sale-weighted sodium content was observed in cheese (57%), a neutral trend was observed in processed meat and derivatives (99%) and bread (100%), and an increase in sodium content was found in ready meals (112%). Similar trends were observed for average sodium levels, but the difference was significant only in the case of ready meals. No statistically significant changes were observed for the matched products, although about one-third of the matched products had been reformulated by lowering the sodium level by more than 3.8%. Additional efforts are needed to ensure salt reduction in processed foods in Slovenia. Such efforts should combine closer collaboration with the food industry, additional consumer education, and setting specific sodium content targets (limits) for key food categories.
| S-EPMC5622712 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Climate change, overfishing, marine pollution and other anthropogenic drivers threaten our global oceans. More effective efforts are urgently required to improve the capacity of marine conservation action worldwide, as highlighted by the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021-2030. Marine citizen science presents a promising avenue to enhance engagement in marine conservation around the globe. Building on an expanding field of citizen science research and practice, we present a global overview of the current extent and potential of marine citizen science and its contribution to marine conservation. Employing an online global survey, we explore the geographical distribution, type and format of 74 marine citizen science projects. By assessing how the projects adhere to the Ten Principles of Citizen Science (as defined by the European Citizen Science Association), we investigate project development, identify challenges and outline future opportunities to contribute to marine science and conservation. Synthesizing the survey results and drawing on evidence from case studies of diverse projects, we assess whether and how citizen science can lead to new scientific knowledge and enhanced environmental stewardship. Overall, we explore how marine citizen science can inform current understanding of marine biodiversity and support the development and implementation of marine conservation initiatives worldwide. This article is part of the theme issue 'Integrative research perspectives on marine conservation'.
| S-EPMC7662190 | biostudies-literature