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Gender differences in wage expectations.

ABSTRACT: Using an own survey on wage expectations among students at two Swiss institutions of higher education, we examine the wage expectations of our respondents along two main lines. First, we investigate the rationality of wage expectations by comparing average expected wages from our sample with those of similar graduates; further, we examine how our respondents revise their expectations when provided information about actual wages. Second, using causal mediation analysis, we test whether the consideration of a rich set of personal and professional controls, inclusive of preferences on family formation and number of children in addition to professional preferences, accounts for the difference in wage expectations across genders. Results suggest that both males and females overestimate their wages compared to actual ones and that males respond in an overconfident manner to information about realized wages. Personal mediators alone cannot explain the indirect effect of gender on wage expectations; however, when combined with professional mediators, this results in a quantitatively large reduction in the unexplained effect of gender on wage expectations. Nonetheless, a non-negligible and statistically significant direct (or unexplained) effect of gender on wage expectations remains in several, but not all specifications.

SUBMITTER: Fernandes A

PROVIDER: S-EPMC8172067 | biostudies-literature |

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

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Project description:Gender expression may be associated with exercise self-efficacy and outcome expectations for exercise in the general population. Exercising for challenge and enjoyment are associated with the instrumental traits typically held by individuals with masculine gender expressions. Conversely, exercising for weight loss to receive validation from others are in line with the expressive traits most commonly held by individuals with feminine gender expressions. Moreover, possessing neither dominant nor expressive traits (undifferentiated gender expressions) have been linked to poorer psychological outcomes. Exercise is important after stroke, but gender differences in psychosocial factors for exercise in this population were unknown. The purpose of this study was to explore whether gender expression differences exist in exercise self-efficacy and outcome expectations for exercise post-stroke. Gender expression (masculine, feminine, androgynous, undifferentiated) was assessed using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory-12 (BSRI-12) in 67 individuals with stroke. Self-efficacy and outcomes expectations for exercise were assessed using the Self-Efficacy for Physical Activity Scale and Short Outcome Expectations for Exercise Scale, respectively. One-way analysis of covariance models were conducted, adjusting for biological sex, age, and time post-stroke. There were differences in exercise self-efficacy across the four gender expression groups (F(3,60) = 4.28, p<0.01), where individuals with masculine gender expressions had higher self-efficacy than those with undifferentiated gender expressions (adjusted mean: 3.56 [SE: 0.17] vs. 2.72 [SE:0.18], p<0.01). There were no differences in outcome expectations for exercise (F(3,57) = 1.08, p = 0.36) between gender expressions. In our pairwise comparisons, we found that individuals with masculine gender expressions had higher exercise self-efficacy than individuals possessing undifferentiated gender expressions. Strategies to enhance exercise self-efficacy after stroke are needed, particularly for individuals with undifferentiated gender expression. There were no associations between gender expression and outcome expectations for exercise after stroke. Clinicians may continue reinforcing the positive expectations towards exercise across all gender expressions.

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Gender differences in wage expectations.

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