ABSTRACT: Class-II fumarases (fumarate hydratase, FH) are dual-targeted enzymes occurring in the mitochondria and cytosol of all eukaryotes. They are essential components in the DNA damage response (DDR) and, more specifically, protect cells from DNA double-strand breaks. Similarly, the gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis class-II fumarase, in addition to its role in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, participates in the DDR. Escherichia coli harbors three fumarase genes: class-I fumA and fumB and class-II fumC Notably, class-I fumarases show no sequence similarity to class-II fumarases and are of different evolutionary origin. Strikingly, here we show that E. coli fumarase functions are distributed between class-I fumarases, which participate in the DDR, and the class-II fumarase, which participates in respiration. In E. coli, we discover that the signaling molecule, alpha-ketoglutarate (α-KG), has a function, complementing DNA damage sensitivity of fum-null mutants. Excitingly, we identify the E. coli α-KG-dependent DNA repair enzyme AlkB as the target of this interplay of metabolite signaling. In addition to α-KG, fumarate (fumaric acid) is shown to affect DNA damage repair on two different levels, first by directly inhibiting the DNA damage repair enzyme AlkB demethylase activity, both in vitro and in vivo (countering α-KG). The second is a more global effect on transcription, because fum-null mutants exhibit a decrease in transcription of key DNA damage repair genes. Together, these results show evolutionary adaptable metabolic signaling of the DDR, in which fumarases and different metabolites are recruited regardless of the evolutionary enzyme class performing the function.
