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Particle emissions from fused deposition modeling 3D printers: Evaluation and meta-analysis.

ABSTRACT: Fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printers, the most popular choice among home hobbyists, have been shown to release volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) and billions of airborne particles per minute, indicating the potential for consumer inhalation exposure and consequent health risks. Publications on FDM 3D printer emissions however, contain large heterogeneity of testing methods and analytical procedures making it difficult to reach overall conclusions for particle characteristics or particle number emission rates across the field. In this publication, data were collected over the printing time from 3D printer emission studies including particle count diameters (PCDs) (nanometers), particle number concentrations (PNCs) (particles/cm³), and particle number emission rates (PNERs) (particles min^-1). Despite heterogeneity in methods, the majority of particles released were reported as ultrafine in size (i.e., <100 nm) indicating that using both acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and poly-lactic acid (PLA) may present a risk of exposure to respirable particles. Mean PNC emitted in 3D printing tests ranged over several orders of magnitude across publications with overall means of 300,980 particles/cm³ for ABS and 65,482 particles/cm³ for PLA. Although mean PNC data were available from only 7 of the 16 papers reviewed, ABS resulted in greater particle numbers than PLA suggesting increased exposure to ultrafine particles. A linear mixed model was fitted for mean PNCs to further explore the impact of nozzle temperature and filament material. Finally, the PNER calculation method especially regarding losses, varied widely across studies, and directly impacted the PNERs reported. To strengthen direct comparability of results going forward, it is recommended that standard emissions testing protocols be developed for FDM 3D printers and particle influxes and losses be more uniformly calculated.

SUBMITTER: Byrley P

PROVIDER: S-EPMC8350970 | biostudies-literature |

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

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Project description:Little is known about emissions and exposure potential from vat polymerization additive manufacturing, a process that uses light-activated polymerization of a resin to build an object. Five vat polymerization printers (three stereolithography (SLA) and two digital light processing (DLP) were evaluated individually in a 12.85 m3 chamber. Aerosols (number, size) and total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) were measured using real-time monitors. Carbonyl vapors and particulate matter were collected for offline analysis using impingers and filters, respectively. During printing, particle emission yields (#/g printed) ranged from 1.3?±?0.3 to 2.8?±?2.6 x 108 (SLA printers) and from 3.3?±?1.5 to 9.2?±?3.0 x 108 (DLP printers). Yields for number of particles with sizes 5.6 to 560?nm (#/g printed) were 0.8?±?0.1 to 2.1?±?0.9 x 1010 and from 1.1?±?0.3 to 4.0?±?1.2 x 1010 for SLA and DLP printers, respectively. TVOC yield values (µg/g printed) ranged from 161?±?47 to 322?±?229 (SLA printers) and from 1281?±?313 to 1931?±?234 (DLP printers). Geometric mean mobility particle sizes were 41.1-45.1?nm for SLA printers and 15.3-28.8?nm for DLP printers. Mean particle and TVOC yields were statistically significantly higher and mean particle sizes were significantly smaller for DLP printers compared with SLA printers (p < 0.05). Energy dispersive X-ray analysis of individual particles qualitatively identified potential occupational carcinogens (chromium, nickel) as well as reactive metals implicated in generation of reactive oxygen species (iron, zinc). Lung deposition modeling indicates that about 15-37% of emitted particles would deposit in the pulmonary region (alveoli). Benzaldehyde (1.0-2.3?ppb) and acetone (0.7-18.0?ppb) were quantified in emissions from four of the printers and 4-oxopentanal (0.07?ppb) was detectable in the emissions from one printer. Vat polymerization printers emitted nanoscale particles that contained potential carcinogens, sensitizers, and reactive metals as well as carbonyl compound vapors. Differences in emissions between SLA and DLP printers indicate that the underlying technology is an important factor when considering exposure reduction strategies such as engineering controls.

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Particle emissions from fused deposition modeling 3D printers: Evaluation and meta-analysis.

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