Racial and ethnic inequities in occupational exposure across and between US cities.
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ABSTRACT:
SUBMITTER: Schnake-Mahl AS
PROVIDER: S-EPMC8590507 | biostudies-literature |
REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature
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Project description:Purpose: Severe racial inequities in maternal and infant health in the United States are caused by the many forms of systemic racism. One manifestation of systemic racism that has received little attention is access to paid parental leave. The aim of this article is to characterize racial/ethnic inequities in access to paid leave after the birth of a child. Methods: We analyzed data on women who were employed during pregnancy (n=908) from the Bay Area Parental Leave Study of Mothers, a survey of mothers who gave birth in the San Francisco Bay Area in 2016-2017. We examined differences in access to government- and employer-paid leave, the duration of leave taken, and the percent of usual pay received while on leave. To explore these differences, we further examined knowledge of paid leave benefits and sources of information. Results: Non-Hispanic (NH) black and Hispanic women had significantly less access to paid leave through their employers or through government programs than their NH white and Asian counterparts. Relative to white women, Asian, Hispanic, and black women received 0.9 (p<0.05), 2.0 (p<0.01), and 3.6 (p<0.01) fewer weeks, respectively, of full-pay equivalent pay during their parental leaves. Despite inequitable access to paid leave, the duration of parental leave taken did not differ by race/ethnicity. Conclusions: Inequitable access to paid parental leave through both employers and government programs exacerbates racial inequities at birth. This form of structural racism could be addressed by policies expanding access to paid leave.
| S-EPMC8665807 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Considerable racial/ethnic disparities persist in exposure to life stressors and socioeconomic resources that can directly affect threat neurocircuitry, particularly the amygdala, that partially mediates susceptibility to adverse posttraumatic outcomes. Limited work to date, however, has investigated potential racial/ethnic variability in amygdala reactivity or connectivity that may in turn be related to outcomes such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants from the AURORA study (n = 283), a multisite longitudinal study of trauma outcomes, completed functional magnetic resonance imaging and psychophysiology within approximately two-weeks of trauma exposure. Seed-based amygdala connectivity and amygdala reactivity during passive viewing of fearful and neutral faces were assessed during fMRI. Physiological activity was assessed during Pavlovian threat conditioning. Participants also reported the severity of posttraumatic symptoms 3 and 6 months after trauma. Black individuals showed lower baseline skin conductance levels and startle compared to White individuals, but no differences were observed in physiological reactions to threat. Further, Hispanic and Black participants showed greater amygdala connectivity to regions including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and cerebellum compared to White participants. No differences were observed in amygdala reactivity to threat. Amygdala connectivity was associated with 3-month PTSD symptoms, but the associations differed by racial/ethnic group and were partly driven by group differences in structural inequities. The present findings suggest variability in tonic neurophysiological arousal in the early aftermath of trauma between racial/ethnic groups, driven by structural inequality, impacts neural processes that mediate susceptibility to later PTSD symptoms.
| S-EPMC10615735 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Background Inequitable access to high-technology therapeutics may perpetuate inequities in care. We examined the characteristics of US hospitals that did and did not establish left atrial appendage occlusion (LAAO) programs, the patient populations those hospitals served, and the associations between zip code-level racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic composition and rates of LAAO among Medicare beneficiaries living within large metropolitan areas with LAAO programs. Methods and Results We conducted cross-sectional analyses of Medicare fee-for-service claims for beneficiaries aged 66 years or older between 2016 and 2019. We identified hospitals establishing LAAO programs during the study period. We used generalized linear mixed models to measure the association between zip code-level racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic composition and age-adjusted rates of LAAO in the most populous 25 metropolitan areas with LAAO sites. During the study period, 507 candidate hospitals started LAAO programs, and 745 candidate hospitals did not. Most new LAAO programs opened in metropolitan areas (97.4%). Compared with non-LAAO centers, LAAO centers treated patients with higher median household incomes (difference of $913 [95% CI, $197-$1629], P=0.01). Zip code-level rates of LAAO procedures per 100 000 Medicare beneficiaries in large metropolitan areas were 0.34% (95% CI, 0.33%-0.35%) lower for each $1000 zip code-level decrease in median household income. After adjustment for socioeconomic markers, age, and clinical comorbidities, LAAO rates were lower in zip codes with higher proportions of Black or Hispanic patients. Conclusions Growth in LAAO programs in the United States had been concentrated in metropolitan areas. LAAO centers treated wealthier patient populations in hospitals without LAAO programs. Within major metropolitan areas with LAAO programs, zip codes with higher proportions of Black and Hispanic patients and more patients experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage had lower age-adjusted rates of LAAO. Thus, geographic proximity alone may not ensure equitable access to LAAO. Unequal access to LAAO may reflect disparities in referral patterns, rates of diagnosis, and preferences for using novel therapies experienced by racial and ethnic minority groups and patients experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage.
| S-EPMC10111439 | biostudies-literature
Project description:ObjectiveTo examine whether the (1) scope of state-mandated insurance coverage for assisted reproductive technology (ART) and (2) proportion of the population eligible for this coverage are associated with reductions in racial/ethnic inequities in ART utilization.DesignNational cross-sectional, ecologic study.SubjectsWe employed estimates from the US Census Bureau of all women 20-44 years of age living in the US in 2018. Data on the number of women who initiated an ART cycle during that year that were reported to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention were obtained from the National ART Surveillance System.ExposureState mandates were classified according to the scope of required coverage for fertility services: Comprehensive, Limited, and No Mandate.Main outcome measuresRace and ethnic-specific ART utilization rates, defined as the number of women undergoing ≥1 ART cycles per 10,000 women, were the primary outcomes. As state mandates do not apply to all insurance plans, Comprehensive Mandate utilization rates were recalculated using denominators corrected for the estimated proportions of populations eligible for coverage.ResultsAcross all mandate categories, Non-Hispanic (NH) Asian and NH White populations had the highest ART utilization rates, whereas the lowest rates were among Hispanic, NH Black, and NH Other/Multiple Races populations. Compared with the NH Asian reference group, the NH Black population had smaller inequities in the Comprehensive Mandate group than the No Mandate group (rate ratio [RR 0.33 [0.28-0.38] vs. RR 0.23 [0.22-0.24]). Using the Comprehensive Mandate group for each race/ethnicity as the reference, the NH Black and NH Other/Multiple Races populations showed the largest relative differences in utilization between the No Mandate and Comprehensive Mandate groups (RR 0.39 [0.37-0.41] and 0.33 [0.28-0.38], respectively). Within the Comprehensive Mandate group, the disparities in the Hispanic and NH Black populations moved toward the null after correcting for state-mandated insurance eligibility.ConclusionsRacial/ethnic inequities in ART utilization were reduced in states with comprehensive infertility coverage mandates. Inequities were further attenuated after correcting for mandate eligibility. Mandates alone, however, were not sufficient to eliminate disparities. These findings can inform future strategies aimed at improving ART access under a social justice framework.
| S-EPMC10951934 | biostudies-literature
Project description:IntroductionRecent research underscores the exceptionally young age distribution of COVID-19 deaths in the U.S. compared with that of international peers. This paper characterizes how high levels of COVID-19 mortality at midlife ages (45-64 years) are deeply intertwined with continuing racial inequity in COVID-19 mortality.MethodsMortality data from Minnesota in 2020-2022 were analyzed in June 2022. Death certificate data (COVID-19 deaths N=12,771) and published vaccination rates in Minnesota allow vaccination and mortality rates to be observed with greater age and temporal precision than national data.ResultsBlack, Hispanic, and Asian adults aged <65 years were all more highly vaccinated than White populations of the same ages during most of Minnesota's substantial and sustained Delta surge and all the subsequent Omicron surges. However, White mortality rates were lower than those of all other groups. These disparities were extreme; at midlife ages (ages 45-64 years), during the Omicron period, more highly vaccinated populations had COVID-19 mortality that was 164% (Asian-American), 115% (Hispanic), or 208% (Black) of White COVID-19 mortality at these ages. In Black, Indigenous, and People of Color populations as a whole, COVID-19 mortality at ages 55-64 years was greater than White mortality at 10 years older.ConclusionsThis discrepancy between vaccination and mortality patterning by race/ethnicity suggests that if the current period is a pandemic of the unvaccinated, it also remains a pandemic of the disadvantaged in ways that can decouple from vaccination rates. This result implies an urgent need to center health equity in the development of COVID-19 policy measures.
| S-EPMC9622467 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Though current evidence suggests that racial-ethnic inequities in dental caries persist over time and across space, their magnitude is currently unknown from a global perspective. This systematic review aims to quantify the magnitude of racial/ethnic inequities in dental caries and to deconstruct the different taxonomies/concepts/methods used for racial/ethnic categorization across different populations/nations. This review has been registered in PROSPERO; CRD42021282771. An electronic search of all relevant databases will be conducted until December 2021 for both published and unpublished literature. Studies will be eligible if they include data on the prevalence or severity of dental caries assessed by the decayed, missing, filled teeth index (DMFT), according to indicators of race-ethnicity. A narrative synthesis of included studies and a random-effects meta-analysis will be conducted. Forest plots will be constructed to assess the difference in effect size for the occurrence of dental caries. Study quality will be determined via the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and the GRADE approach will be used for assessing the quality of evidence. This systematic review will enhance knowledge of the magnitude of racial/ethnic inequities in dental caries globally by providing important benchmark data on which to base interventions to mitigate the problem and to visualize the effects of racism on oral health.
| S-EPMC8835154 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundRacial inequities in Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) have been reported over the course of the pandemic, with Black, Hispanic/Latinx, and Native American individuals suffering higher case rates and more fatalities than their White counterparts.MethodsWe used a unique statewide dataset of confirmed COVID-19 cases across Missouri, linked with historical statewide hospital data. We examined differences by race and ethnicity in raw population-based case and mortality rates. We used patient-level regression analyses to calculate the odds of mortality based on race and ethnicity, controlling for comorbidities and other risk factors.ResultsAs of September 10, 2020 there were 73,635 confirmed COVID-19 cases in the State of Missouri. Among the 64,526 case records (87.7% of all cases) that merged with prior demographic and health care utilization data, 12,946 (20.1%) were Non-Hispanic (NH) Black, 44,550 (69.0%) were NH White, 3,822 (5.9%) were NH Other/Unknown race, and 3,208 (5.0%) were Hispanic. Raw cumulative case rates for NH Black individuals were 1,713 per 100,000 population, compared with 2,095 for NH Other/Unknown, 903 for NH White, and 1,218 for Hispanic. Cumulative COVID-19-related death rates for NH Black individuals were 58.3 per 100,000 population, compared with 38.9 for NH Other/Unknown, 19.4 for NH White, and 14.8 for Hispanic. In a model that included insurance source, history of a social determinant billing code in the patient's claims, census block travel change, population density, Area Deprivation Index, and clinical comorbidities, NH Black race (OR 1.75, 1.51-2.04, p<0.001) and NH Other/Unknown race (OR 1.83, 1.36-2.46, p<0.001) remained strongly associated with mortality.ConclusionsIn Missouri, COVID-19 case rates and mortality rates were markedly higher among NH Black and NH Other/Unknown race than among NH White residents, even after accounting for social and clinical risk, population density, and travel patterns during COVID-19.
| S-EPMC8797246 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundNationwide, as of 20 June 2021, COVID-19 has claimed more than 599,000 lives and infected nearly 33 million people. Studies have shown that COVID-19 disproportionately affects some racial and ethnic minority groups. This study examined whether certain racial and ethnic groups were overrepresented in occupations with potentially high COVID-19 exposure risks, relative to their share in the total workforce. The study incorporates white collar workers, who to date have not gotten as much attention in terms of workers safety.MethodsUsing the March and April 2020 Current Population Survey and O*Net data, this study examined whether certain racial and ethnic groups were overrepresented in occupations with potentially high risk of exposure to COVID-19 (exposure to disease and infection at work, inability to maintain physical distancing at work, and inability to work from home) relative to their share in the total workforce.ResultsThe results showed that Black workers were overrepresented in occupations with high potential risk of exposure to disease and infection at work and inability to maintain physical distancing at work. Hispanic workers were overrepresented in occupations where potential risk of inability to work from home was the highest.ConclusionOccupation can be one of the risk factors for the current disproportionately high COVID-19 infection rates among Black and Hispanic workers. COVID-19-related prevention measures at high risk occupations, including providing adequate personal protective equipment, training, working space, and vaccinations, could help to reduce not only the spread of COVID-19 and infectious diseases but also their disproportionately high impact in certain minority racial and ethnic groups.
| S-EPMC8340801 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BackgroundHistorical mortgage redlining, a racially discriminatory policy designed to uphold structural racism, may have played a role in producing the persistently elevated rate of severe maternal morbidity (SMM) among racialised birthing people.ObjectiveThis study examined associations between Home-Owner Loan Corporation (HOLC) redlining grades and SMM in a racially and ethnically diverse birth cohort in California.MethodsWe leveraged a population-based cohort of all live hospital births at ≥20 weeks of gestation between 1997 and 2017 in California. SMM was defined as having one of 21 procedures and diagnoses, per an index developed by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. We characterised census tract-level redlining using HOLC's security maps for eight California cities. We assessed bivariate associations between HOLC grades and participant characteristics. Race and ethnicity-stratified mixed effects logistic regression models assessed the risk of SMM associated with HOLC grades within non-Hispanic Black, Asian/Pacific Islander, American Indian/Alaskan Native and Hispanic groups, adjusting for sociodemographic information, pregnancy-related factors, co-morbidities and neighbourhood deprivation index.ResultsThe study sample included 2,020,194 births, with 24,579 cases of SMM (1.2%). Living in a census tract that was graded as "Hazardous," compared to census tracts graded "Best" and "Still Desirable," was associated with 1.15 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03, 1.29) and 1.17 (95% CI 1.09, 1.25) times the risk of SMM among Black and Hispanic birthing people, respectively, independent of sociodemographic factors. These associations persisted after adjusting for pregnancy-related factors and neighbourhood deprivation index.ConclusionsHistorical redlining, a tool of structural racism that influenced the trajectory of neighbourhood social and material conditions, is associated with increased risk of experiencing SMM among Black and Hispanic birthing people in California. These findings demonstrate that addressing the enduring impact of macro-level and systemic mechanisms that uphold structural racism is a vital step in achieving racial and ethnic equity in birthing people's health.
| S-EPMC10373920 | biostudies-literature
Project description:BACKGROUND & METHODS:Recent social movements have highlighted fatal police violence as an enduring public health problem in the United States. To solve it, the public requires basic information, such as understanding where rates of fatal police violence are particularly high, and for which groups. Existing mapping efforts, though critically important, often use inappropriate statistical methods and can produce misleading, unstable rates when denominators are small. To fill this gap, we use inverse-variance-weighted multilevel models to estimate overall and race-stratified rates of fatal police violence for all Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs) in the U.S. (2013-2017), as well as racial inequities in these rates. We analyzed the most recent, reliable data from Fatal Encounters, a citizen science initiative that aggregates and verifies media reports. RESULTS:Rates of police-related fatalities varied dramatically, with the deadliest MSAs exhibiting rates nine times those of the least deadly. Overall rates in Southwestern MSAs were highest, with lower rates in the northern Midwest and Northeast. Yet this pattern was reversed for Black-White inequities, with Northeast and Midwest MSAs exhibiting the highest inequities nationwide. Our main results excluded deaths that could be considered accidents (e.g., vehicular collisions), but sensitivity analyses demonstrated that doing so may underestimate the rate of fatal police violence in some MSAs by 60%. Black-White and Latinx-White inequities were slightly underestimated nationally by excluding reportedly 'accidental' deaths, but MSA-specific inequities were sometimes severely under- or over-estimated. CONCLUSIONS:Preventing fatal police violence in different areas of the country will likely require unique solutions. Estimates of the severity of these problems (overall rates, racial inequities, specific causes of death) in any given MSA are quite sensitive to which types of deaths are analyzed, and whether race and cause of death are attributed correctly. Monitoring and mapping these rates using appropriate methods is critical for government accountability and successful prevention.
| S-EPMC7313728 | biostudies-literature