ABSTRACT: Mutations that cause structural variation are important sources of genetic variation upon which other evolutionary forces can act, however, they are difficult to observe and therefore few direct estimates of their rate and spectrum are available. Understanding mutation rate evolution, however, requires adding to the limited number of species for which direct estimates are available, quantifying levels of intraspecific variation in mutation rates, and assessing whether rate estimates co-vary across types of mutation. Here, we report structural variation-causing mutation rates (svcMRs) for six categories of mutations (short insertions and deletions, long deletions and duplications, and deletions and duplications at copy number variable sites) from nine genotypes of Daphnia magna collected from three populations in Finland, Germany, and Israel using a mutation accumulation approach. Based on whole-genome sequence data and validated using simulations, we find svcMRs are high (two orders of magnitude higher than base substitution mutation rates measured in the same lineages), highly variable among populations, and uncorrelated across categories of mutation. Furthermore, to assess the impact of scvMRs on the genome, we calculated rates while adjusting for the lengths of events and ran simulations to determine if the mutations occur in genic regions more or less frequently than expected by chance. Our results pose a challenge to most prevailing theories aimed at explaining the evolution of the mutation rate, underscoring the importance of obtaining additional mutation rate estimates in more genotypes, for more types of mutation, in more species, in order to improve our future understanding of mutation rates, their variation, and their evolution.
