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The penalty of work from home: gender gap in productivity of unorganised manufacturing firms in India

ABSTRACT: This study estimates the contribution of gendered social norms in explaining the gender gap in productivity of unorganised manufacturing firms. Restrictions on mobility and burden of household work mean that female firm-owners primarily operate from their household premises. Using data from unorganised firms operating in the manufacturing sector in India, this paper finds gender gap in firm productivity. The Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition at mean show that despite controlling for size of the firm, assets and other conventional factors, the location of a female proprietary firm within the household premises of the owner explains 19% of the observed gender gap in productivity. The RIF decomposition results show that at the different quartiles, this contribution varies from 19 to 36% of the composition effect. The evidence suggests that the persistence of the gender gap in firm productivity is associated with the persistence of gendered social norms.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11187-022-00637-2. Plain English Summary Almost 95% of female owned firms in the unorganised manufacturing sector in India operate from within the household premises, due to prevalent gendered social norms. These norms put the responsibility of unpaid household work solely on women and impose mobility restrictions. This paper examines whether restrictive social norms contribute towards the gender gap in firm productivity. I find that that the location of these firms within the household restricts them from expanding, as well as contribute to prevalent the gender gap in productivity and incomes generated from proprietary firms operating in the unorganised manufacturing sector. Newer policies supporting women’s mobility and paid work that supplement conventional policies to improve entrepreneurship are required. However, as social norms involve coordinated actions and fear of sanction in case of noncompliance, these policies would work effectively if they are targeted towards both genders and entire neighbourhoods.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11187-022-00637-2.

SUBMITTER: Bose S

PROVIDER: S-EPMC9116277 | biostudies-literature |

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

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Project description:BackgroundThe gender gap in physician pay is often attributed in part to women working fewer hours than men, but evidence to date is limited by self-report and a lack of detail regarding clinical revenue and gender differences in practice style.MethodsUsing national all-payer claims and data from electronic health records, we conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 24.4 million primary care office visits in 2017 and performed comparisons between female and male physicians in the same practices. Our primary independent variable was physician gender; outcomes included visit revenue, visit counts, days worked, and observed visit time (interval between the initiation and the termination of a visit). We created multivariable regression models at the year, day, and visit level after adjustment for characteristics of the primary care physicians (PCPs), patients, and types of visit and for practice fixed effects.ResultsIn 2017, female PCPs generated 10.9% less revenue from office visits than their male counterparts (-$39,143.2; 95% confidence interval [CI], -53,523.0 to -24,763.4) and conducted 10.8% fewer visits (-330.5 visits; 95% CI, -406.6 to -254.3) over 2.6% fewer clinical days (-5.3 days; 95% CI, -7.7 to -3.0), after adjustment for age, academic degree, specialty, and number of sessions worked per week, yet spent 2.6% more observed time in visits that year than their male counterparts (1201.3 minutes; 95% CI, 184.7 to 2218.0). Per visit, after adjustment for PCP, patient, and visit characteristics, female PCPs generated equal revenue but spent 15.7% more time with a patient (2.4 minutes; 95% CI, 2.1 to 2.6). These results were consistent in subgroup analyses according to the gender and health status of the patients and the type and complexity of the visits.ConclusionsFemale PCPs generated less visit revenue than male colleagues in the same practices owing to a lower volume of visits, yet spent more time in direct patient care per visit, per day, and per year. (Funded in part by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation.).

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The penalty of work from home: gender gap in productivity of unorganised manufacturing firms in India

Supplementary Information

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