The need for specific penalties for hacking in criminal law.
Ontology highlight
ABSTRACT:
SUBMITTER: Oh S
PROVIDER: S-EPMC4083268 | biostudies-other | 2014
REPOSITORIES: biostudies-other
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Project description:The onslaught on the World's wildlife continues despite numerous initiatives aimed at curbing it. We build a model that integrates rhino horn trade with rhino population dynamics in order to evaluate the impact of various management policies on rhino sustainability. In our model, an agent-based sub-model of horn trade from the poaching event up through a purchase of rhino horn in Asia impacts rhino abundance. A data-validated, individual-based sub-model of the rhino population of South Africa provides these abundance values. We evaluate policies that consist of different combinations of legal trade initiatives, demand reduction marketing campaigns, increased anti-poaching measures within protected areas, and transnational policing initiatives aimed at disrupting those criminal syndicates engaged in horn trafficking. Simulation runs of our model over the next 35 years produces a sustainable rhino population under only one management policy. This policy includes both a transnational policing effort aimed at dismantling those criminal networks engaged in rhino horn trafficking-coupled with increases in legal economic opportunities for people living next to protected areas where rhinos live. This multi-faceted approach should be the focus of the international debate on strategies to combat the current slaughter of rhino rather than the binary debate about whether rhino horn trade should be legalized. This approach to the evaluation of wildlife management policies may be useful to apply to other species threatened by wildlife trafficking.
| S-EPMC5117767 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Body-worn video is increasingly relied upon in the criminal justice system, however it is unclear how viewing chest-mounted video may affect a police officer's statement about an event. In the present study, we asked whether reviewing footage from an experienced event could shape an individual's statement, and if so, whether reporting before reviewing may preserve an officer's original experience. Student participants (n = 97) were equipped with chest-mounted cameras as they viewed a simulated theft in virtual reality. One week later, half of the participants recalled the event in an initial statement while the other half did not. Participants then viewed either their body-worn video or a control video. Finally, participants provided their statement (no initial statement condition) or were given the opportunity to amend their original account (initial statement condition). Results revealed that viewing body-worn video enhanced the completeness and accuracy of individuals' free recall statements. However, whilst reviewing footage enabled individuals to exclude errors they had written in their initial statements, they also excluded true details that were uncorroborated by the camera footage (i.e., details which individuals experienced, but that their camera did not record). Such camera conformity is discussed in light of the debate on when an officer should access their body-worn video during an investigation and the influence of post-event information on memory.
| S-EPMC7743977 | biostudies-literature
Project description:IntroductionGlobally, prosecutions for non-disclosure, exposure or transmission of HIV frequently relate to sexual activity, biting, or spitting. This includes instances in which no harm was intended, HIV transmission did not occur, and HIV transmission was extremely unlikely or not possible. This suggests prosecutions are not always guided by the best available scientific and medical evidence.DiscussionTwenty scientists from regions across the world developed this Expert Consensus Statement to address the use of HIV science by the criminal justice system. A detailed analysis of the best available scientific and medical research data on HIV transmission, treatment effectiveness and forensic phylogenetic evidence was performed and described so it may be better understood in criminal law contexts. Description of the possibility of HIV transmission was limited to acts most often at issue in criminal cases. The possibility of HIV transmission during a single, specific act was positioned along a continuum of risk, noting that the possibility of HIV transmission varies according to a range of intersecting factors including viral load, condom use, and other risk reduction practices. Current evidence suggests the possibility of HIV transmission during a single episode of sex, biting or spitting ranges from no possibility to low possibility. Further research considered the positive health impact of modern antiretroviral therapies that have improved the life expectancy of most people living with HIV to a point similar to their HIV-negative counterparts, transforming HIV infection into a chronic, manageable health condition. Lastly, consideration of the use of scientific evidence in court found that phylogenetic analysis alone cannot prove beyond reasonable doubt that one person infected another although it can be used to exonerate a defendant.ConclusionsThe application of up-to-date scientific evidence in criminal cases has the potential to limit unjust prosecutions and convictions. The authors recommend that caution be exercised when considering prosecution, and encourage governments and those working in legal and judicial systems to pay close attention to the significant advances in HIV science that have occurred over the last three decades to ensure current scientific knowledge informs application of the law in cases related to HIV.
| S-EPMC6058263 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Combinatorial genetics reveals a scaling law for the effects of mutations on splicing
| PRJEB24588 | ENA
Project description:Abstract Background The overlap between justice system involvement and drug use is well‐documented. Justice‐involved people who misuse opioids are at high risk for relapse and criminal recidivism. Criminal justice policymakers consider opioid‐specific medication‐assisted therapies (MATs) one approach for improving outcomes for this population. More research is needed that explores the impacts of opioid‐specific MATs for justice‐involved people. Objectives This study sought to assess the effects of opioid‐specific MAT for reducing the frequency and likelihood of criminal justice and overdose outcomes for current or formerly justice‐involved individuals. Search Methods Records were searched between May 7, 2021 and June 23, 2021. We searched a total of sixteen proprietary and open access databases that included access to gray literature and conference proceedings. The bibliographies of included studies and relevant reviews were also searched. Selection Criteria Studies were eligible for inclusion in the review if they: (a) assessed the effects of opioid‐specific MATs on individual‐level criminal justice or overdose outcomes; included (b) a current or formerly justice‐involved sample; and (c) a randomized or strong quasi‐experimental design; and c) were published in English between January 1, 1960 and October 31, 2020. Data Collection and Analysis We used the standard methodological procedures as expected by The Campbell Collaboration. Main Results Twenty studies were included, representing 30,119 participants. The overall risk of bias for the experimental studies ranged from “some” to “high” and for quasi‐experimental studies ranged from “moderate” to “serious.” As such, findings must be interpreted against the backdrop of less‐than‐ideal methodological contexts. Of the 20 included studies, 16 included outcomes that were meta‐analyzed using mean log odds ratios (which were reported as mean odds ratios). Mean effects were nonsignificant for reincarceration (odds ratio [OR] = 0.93 [0.68, 1.26], SE = .16), rearrest (OR = 1.47 [0.70, 3.07], SE = 0.38), and fatal overdose (OR = 0.82 [0.56, 1.21], SE = 0.20). For nonfatal overdose, the average effect was significant (OR = 0.41 [0.18, 0.91], SE = 0.41, p < 0.05), suggesting that those receiving MAT had nearly 60% reduced odds of a nonfatal overdose. Implications for Policy, Practice, and Research The current review supports some utility for adopting MAT for the treatment of justice‐involved people with opioid addiction, however, more studies that employ rigorous methodologies are needed. Researchers should work with agencies to improve adherence to medication regimens, study design, and collect more detailed information on participants, their criminal and substance use histories, onset, and severity. This would help clarify whether treatment and control groups are indeed comparable and provide better insight into the potential reasons for participant dropout, treatment failure, and the occurrence of recidivism or overdose. Outcomes should be assessed in multiple ways, if possible (e.g., self‐report and official record), as reliance on official data alone may undercount participants' degree of criminal involvement.
| S-EPMC8742132 | biostudies-literature
Project description:Mounting evidence suggests that law enforcement organizational factors contribute to higher incidence and racial disparities in police killings. To determine whether agency policies contribute to race-specific civilian fatalities, this exploratory study compared fatality rates among agencies with and without selected policies expected to reduce killings. A cross-section of 1085 fatalities in the 2015-2016 The Counted public-use database were matched to 481 agencies in the 2013 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) database. Negative binomial regression estimated incidence rate ratios (IRR) adjusted for agency type, number of officers, percent female personnel, median income, percent with a bachelor's degree, violent crime rate, and population size, with inference using robust standard errors. Agencies with greater proportions of full-time personnel (range 43-100%) had lower rates of all (IRR = 0.85; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.77-0.93) and non-White civilian killings (IRR = 0.85; CI = 0.73-0.99). Mission statements predicted lower rates of all (IRR = 0.70; CI = 0.58-0.84) and White killings (IRR = 0.60; CI = 0.40-0.90). Community evaluation and more types of personnel incentives predicted lower rates of White (IRR = 0.82; CI = 0.68-0.99) and non-White killings (IRR = 0.94; CI = 0.89-1.00), respectively. Increasing video use predicted higher rates of White killings (IRR = 1.13; CI = 1.01-1.28). No policies were significantly associated with Black civilian killings. Law enforcement policies that help reduce police killings may vary across racial groups with the least benefit for Black civilians. Impact evaluations and meta-analyses of initiatives aimed to mitigate fatalities should be explored, particularly policies to address anti-Black bias. A national registry tracking all police killings and agency policies is urgently needed to inform law enforcement policies aimed to mitigate civilian fatalities.
| S-EPMC8221500 | biostudies-literature
Project description:One of the most basic predictions of almost any model of crime is that individual time preferences matter. However, empirical evidence on this fundamental property is essentially nonexistent. To our knowledge, this paper provides the first pieces of evidence on the link between time discounting and crime. We use a unique dataset that combines a survey-based measure of time discount rates (at age 13) with detailed longitudinal register data on criminal behavior spanning over 18 y. Our results show that individuals with short time horizons have a significantly higher risk of criminal involvement later in life. The magnitude of the relationship is substantial and corresponds to roughly one-third of the association between intelligence and crime.
| S-EPMC4896668 | biostudies-other
Project description:The widespread phenomenon of enacting HIV-specific laws to criminally punish transmission of, exposure to, or non-disclosure of HIV, is counter-active to good public health conceptions and repugnant to elementary human rights principles. The authors provide ten reasons why criminal laws and criminal prosecutions are bad strategy in the epidemic.
| S-EPMC2635346 | biostudies-other
Project description:BackgroundResting metabolic rate (RMR) is a key determinant of daily caloric needs. Respirometry, a form of indirect calorimetry (IC), is considered one of the most accurate methods to measure RMR in clinical and research settings. It is impractical to measure RMR by IC in routine clinical practice; therefore, several formulas are used to predict RMR. In this study, we sought to determine the accuracy of these formulas in determining RMR and assess additional factors that may determine RMR.MethodsWe measured RMR in 114 subjects (67% female, 30% African American [AA]) using IC. Along with standard anthropometrics, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry was used to obtain fat-free mass(FFM) and total fat mass. Measured RMR (mRMR) by respirometry was compared with predicted RMR (pRMR) generated by Mifflin-St.Joer, Cunningham, and Harris-Benedict (HB) equations. Linear regression models were used to determine factors affecting mRMR.ResultsMean age, BMI, and mRMR of subjects were 46 ± 16 years (mean ± SD), 35 ± 10 kg/m2, and 1658 ± 391 kcal/day, respectively. After adjusting for age, gender, and anthropometrics, the two largest predictors of mRMR were race (p < 0.0001) and FFM (p < 0.0001). For every kg increase in FFM, RMR increased by 28 kcal/day (p < 0.0001). AA race was associated with 144 kcal/day (p < 0.0001) decrease in mRMR. The impact of race on mRMR was mitigated by adding in truncal FFM to the model. When using only clinically measured variables to predict mRMR, we found race, hip circumference, age, gender, and weight to be significant predictors of mRMR (p < 0.005). Mifflin-St.Joer and HB equations that use just age, gender, height, and weight overestimated kcal expenditure in AA by 138 ± 148 and 242 ± 164 (p < 0.0001), respectively.ConclusionWe found that formulas utilizing height, weight, gender, and age systematically overestimate mRMR and hence predict higher calorie needs among AA. The lower mRMR in AA could be related to truncal fat-free mass representing the activity of metabolically active intraabdominal organs.
| S-EPMC6662665 | biostudies-literature