ABSTRACT: Background:Glyphosate is among the most extensively used pesticides worldwide. Following the ongoing highly controversial debate on this compound, its potential impact on non-target organisms is a fundamental scientific issue. In its pure compound form, glyphosate is known for its acidic properties. Methods:We exposed zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos to concentrations between 10 ?M and 10 mM glyphosate in an unbuffered aqueous medium, as well as at pH 7, for 96 hours post fertilization (hpf). Furthermore, we investigated the effects of aqueous media in the range of pH 3 to 8, in comparison with 1 mM glyphosate treatment at the respective pH levels. Additionally, we exposed zebrafish to 7-deoxy-sedoheptulose (7dSh), another substance that interferes with the shikimate pathway by a mechanism analogous to that of glyphosate, at a concentration of one mM. The observed endpoints included mortality, the hatching rate, developmental delays at 24 hpf, the heart rate at 48 hpf and the malformation rate at 96 hpf. LC10/50, EC10 and, if reasonable, EC50 values were determined for unbuffered glyphosate. Results:The results revealed high mortalities in all treatments associated with low pH, including high concentrations of unbuffered glyphosate (>500 ?M), low pH controls and glyphosate treatments with pH < 3.4. Sublethal endpoints like developmental delays and malformations occurred mainly at higher concentrations of unbuffered glyphosate. In contrast, effects on the hatching rate became particularly prominent in treatments at pH 7, showing that glyphosate significantly accelerates hatching compared with the control and 7dSh, even at the lowest tested concentration. Glyphosate also affected the heart rate, resulting in alterations both at pH 7 and, even more pronounced, in the unbuffered system. In higher concentrations, glyphosate tended to accelerate the heart rate in zebrafish embryos, again, when not masked by the decelerating influence of its low pH. At pH > 4, no mortality occurred, neither in the control nor in glyphosate treatments. At 1 mM, 7dSh did not induce any mortality, developmental delays or malformations; only slightly accelerated hatching and a decelerated heart rate were observed. Our results demonstrate that lethal impacts in zebrafish embryos can be attributed mainly to low pH, but we could also show a pH-independent effect of glyphosate on the development of zebrafish embryos on a sublethal level.
