Early anthropoid femora reveal divergent adaptive trajectories in catarrhine hind-limb evolution.
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ABSTRACT:
SUBMITTER: Almecija S
PROVIDER: S-EPMC6838095 | biostudies-literature |
REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature
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Project description:Cytochrome c oxidase (COX) is a 13-subunit protein complex that catalyzes the last step in mitochondrial electron transfer in mammals. Of the 10 subunits encoded by nuclear DNA (three are mtDNA products), some are expressed as tissue- and/or development-specific isoforms. For COX subunit VIII, previous work showed that expression of the contractile muscle-specific isoform gene, COX8H, is absent in humans and Old World monkeys, and the other isoform gene, COX8L, is expressed ubiquitously. Here, we show that COX8H is transcribed in most primate clades, but its expression is absent in catarrhines, that is, in Old World monkeys and hominids (apes, including humans), having become a pseudogene in the stem of the catarrhines. The ubiquitously expressed isoform, COX8L, underwent nonsynonymous rate acceleration and elevation in the ratio of nonsynonymous/synonymous changes in the stem of anthropoid primates (New World monkeys and catarrhines), possibly setting the stage for loss of the heart-type (H) isoform. The most rapidly evolving region of VIII-L is one that interacts with COX I, suggesting that the changes are functionally coadaptive. Because accelerated rates of nonsynonymous substitutions in anthropoids such as observed for COX8L are also shown by genes for at least 13 other electron transport chain components, these encoded amino acid replacements may be viewed as part of a series of coadaptive changes that optimized the anthropoid biochemical machinery for aerobic energy metabolism. We argue that these changes were linked to the evolution of an expanded neocortex in anthropoid primates.
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Project description:True sea snakes (Hydrophiini) are among the last and most successful clades of vertebrates that show secondary marine adaptation, exhibiting diverse phenotypic traits and lethal venom systems. To better understand their evolution, we generated the first chromosome-level genomes of two representative Hydrophiini snakes, Hydrophis cyanocinctus and H. curtus. Through comparative genomics we identified a great expansion of the underwater olfaction-related V2R gene family, consisting of more than 1000 copies in both snakes. A series of chromosome rearrangements and genomic structural variations were recognized, including large inversions longer than 30 megabase (Mb) on sex chromosomes which potentially affect key functional genes associated with differentiated phenotypes between the two species. By integrating multi-omics we found a significant loss of the major weapon for elapid predation, three-finger toxin genes, which displayed a dosage effect in H. curtus. These genetic changes may imply mechanisms that drove the divergent evolution of adaptive traits including prey preferences between the two closely related snakes. Our reference-quality sea snake genomes also enrich the repositories for addressing important issues on the evolution of marine tetrapods, and provide a resource for discovering marine-derived biological products.
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Project description:We report new skeletal elements pertaining to the same individual which represents the holotype of Australovenator wintonensis, from the 'Matilda Site' in the Winton Formation (Upper Cretaceous) of western Queensland. The discovery of these new elements means that the hind limb of Australovenator is now the most completely understood hind limb among Neovenatoridae. The new hind limb elements include: the left fibula; left metatarsal IV; left pedal phalanges I-2, II-1, III-4, IV-2, IV-3; and right pedal phalanges, II-2 and III-1. The detailed descriptions are supported with three dimensional figures. These coupled with the completeness of the hind limb will increase the utility of Australovenator in comparisons with less complete neovenatorid genera. These specimens and the previously described hind limb elements of Australovenator are compared with other theropods classified as neovenatorids (including Neovenator, Chilantaisaurus, Fukuiraptor, Orkoraptor and Megaraptor). Hind limb length proportion comparisons indicate that the smaller neovenatorids Australovenator and Fukuiraptor possess more elongate and gracile hind limb elements than the larger Neovenator and Chilantaisaurus. Greater stride lengths to body size exist in both Fukuiraptor and Australovenator with the femur discovered to be proportionally shorter the rest of the hind limb length. Additionally Australovenator is identified as possessing the most elongate metatarsus. The metatarsus morphology varies with body size. The larger neoventorids possess a metatarsus with greater width but shorter length compared to smaller forms.
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Project description:Bone strength is generally thought to decline with aging and prior work has compared traits between younger and older cohorts to identify the structural and compositional changes that contribute to fracture risk with age. However, for men, the majority of individuals do not fracture a bone in their lifetime. While fracture occurrence is multifactorial, the absence of fracture in the majority of males suggests that some individuals maintain bone strength or do not lose enough strength to fracture, whereas others do lose strength with aging. Consequently, not all structural and material changes observed with age may lead to strength-decline. We propose that consideration of different subgroups of older individuals will provide a more precise understanding of which structural and material changes directly contribute to strength-decline. We identified subgroups using latent profile analysis (LPA), which is a clustering-based algorithm that takes multiple continuous variables into account. Human cadaveric male femoral diaphyses (n = 33, 26-89 years) were subjected to whole bone and tissue-level mechanical tests. Morphological traits, porosity, and cortical tissue mineral density (Ct.TMD) were obtained, as were measures of enzymatic cross-links and the advanced glycation end product, pentosidine (PEN). A univariate analysis first identified a younger cohort (YNG, n = 11) and older cohort (n = 22). LPA was then conducted using three mechanical traits (whole bone strength, tissue-level strength, and tissue-level post-yield strain), resulting in a further stratification of the older group into two similarly aged groups (p = 0.558), but one with higher (OHM, n = 16) and another with lower mechanical properties (OLM, n = 6). The OLM group exhibited lower whole bone strength (p = 0.016), tissue-level strength (p < 0.001), and tissue-level post-yield strain (p < 0.001) compared to the YNG group. Meanwhile, the OHM only exhibited significantly lower tissue-level post-yield strain (p < 0.001), compared to the YNG group. Between the two older groups, the OHM group exhibited higher whole bone strength (p = 0.037), tissue-level strength (p = 0.006), and tissue-level post-yield strain (p = 0.012) than the OLM group. Probing the morphological and compositional relationships among the three groups, both OHM and OLM exhibited increased PEN content (p < 0.001, p = 0.008 respectively) and increased Log(cortical pore score) relative to YNG (p = 0.003, p < 0.001 respectively). Compared to the OHM group, the OLM also exhibited increased marrow area (p = 0.049), water content (p = 0.048), and decreased Ct.TMD (p = 0.005). The key traits that were unique to the OLM group compared to YNG were decreased Ct.TMD (p < 0.001) and increased Log(porosity) (p = 0.002). There were many properties that differed between the younger and older groups, but not all were associated with reduced mechanical properties, highlighting the relative importance of certain age-related traits such as porosity, Ct.TMD, water content, and marrow area that were unique to the OLM group. Overall, this work supports the hypothesis that there are subgroups of men showing different strength-decline trajectories with aging and establishes a basis for refining our understanding of which age-related changes are directly contributing to decreased strength.
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Project description:BACKGROUND:Developmental processes that underpin morphological variation have become a focus of interest when attempting to interpret macroevolutionary patterns. Recently, the Dental Inhibitory Cascade (DIC) model has been suggested to explain much of the variation in mammalian molar size proportions. We tested the macroevolutionary implications of this model using anthropoid primate species (n=100), focusing on overall morphological patterns, as well as predictions made about molar size variability, direct developmental control, and diet. RESULTS:Of the species sampled, 56 % had centroids that fell within regions of molar proportion morphospace consistent with the DIC model. We also found that the third molar had greater variation in size than either the first or second molars, as expected by the model. Some DIC model predictions were not supported, however, such as the expected proportion of M 2/M 1 when the third molar is absent. Furthermore, we found that some variability in third molar size could not be explained by the influence of the inhibitory cascade. Overall, we found considerable clade-specific differences in relative molar sizes among anthropoid primates, with hominoids and cercopithecins strongly divergent from DIC model predictions, and platyrrhines, colobines, and papionins more consistent with the inhibitory cascade. Finally, we investigated reasons why some clades deviated from DIC model expectations. Adaptations for frugivory (e.g., bunodont cusp relief) appeared to be one driver of relatively larger second molars and have evolved independently in multiple lineages of anthropoids. CONCLUSIONS:The DIC model explains some of the variation in anthropoid primate molar proportions. However, there are interesting deviations away from this broad mammalian pattern, particularly in hominoids and cercopithecins, which suggest the model is only one of multiple mechanisms determining morphological variability in mammalian teeth.
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Project description:BackgroundThe shape of the appendicular bones in mammals usually reflects adaptations towards different locomotor abilities. However, other aspects such as body size and phylogeny also play an important role in shaping bone design.We used 3D landmark-based geometric morphometrics to analyse the shape of the hind limb bones (i.e., femur, tibia, and pelvic girdle bones) of living and extinct terrestrial carnivorans (Mammalia, Carnivora) to quantitatively investigate the influence of body size, phylogeny, and locomotor behaviour in shaping the morphology of these bones. We also investigated the main patterns of morphological variation within a phylogenetic context.ResultsSize and phylogeny strongly influence the shape of the hind limb bones. In contrast, adaptations towards different modes of locomotion seem to have little influence. Principal Components Analysis and the study of phylomorphospaces suggest that the main source of variation in bone shape is a gradient of slenderness-robustness.ConclusionThe shape of the hind limb bones is strongly influenced by body size and phylogeny, but not to a similar degree by locomotor behaviour. The slender-robust "morphological bipolarity" found in bone shape variability is probably related to a trade-off between maintaining energetic efficiency and withstanding resistance to stresses. The balance involved in this trade-off impedes the evolution of high phenotypic variability. In fact, both morphological extremes (slender/robust) are adaptive in different selective contexts and lead to a convergence in shape among taxa with extremely different ecologies but with similar biomechanical demands. Strikingly, this "one-to-many mapping" pattern of evolution between morphology and ecology in hind limb bones is in complete contrast to the "many-to-one mapping" pattern found in the evolution of carnivoran skull shape. The results suggest that there are more constraints in the evolution of the shape of the appendicular skeleton than in that of skull shape because of the strong biomechanical constraints imposed by terrestrial locomotion.
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Project description:High (millimolar) concentrations of the histidine containing dipeptide - carnosine (?-alanine-L-histidine) are present in the skeletal muscle. The dipeptide has been shown to buffer intracellular pH, chelate transition metals, and scavenge lipid peroxidation products; however, its role in protecting against tissue injury remains unclear. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that carnosine protects against post ischemia by augmenting HIF-1? angiogenic signaling by Fe2+ chelation. We found that wild type (WT) C57BL/6 mice, subjected to hind limb ischemia (HLI) and supplemented with carnosine (1g/L) in drinking water, had improved blood flow recovery and limb function, enhanced revascularization and regeneration of myocytes compared with HLI mice placed on water alone. Carnosine supplementation enhanced the bioavailability of carnosine in the ischemic limb, which was accompanied by increased expression of proton-coupled oligopeptide transporters. Consistent with our hypothesis, carnosine supplementation augmented HIF-1? and VEGF expression in the ischemic limb and the mobilization of proangiogenic Flk-1+/Sca-1+ cells into circulation. Pretreatment of murine myoblast (C2C12) cells with octyl-D-carnosine or carnosine enhanced HIF-1? protein expression, VEGF mRNA levels and VEGF release under hypoxic conditions. Similarly pretreatment of WT C57/Bl6 mice with carnosine showed enhanced blood flow in the ischemic limb following HLI surgery. In contrast, pretreatment of hypoxic C2C12 cells with methylcarcinine, a carnosine analog, lacking Fe2+ chelating capacity, had no effect on HIF-1? levels and VEGF release. Collectively, these data suggest that carnosine promotes post ischemic revascularization via augmentation of pro-angiogenic HIF-1?/VEGF signaling, possibly by Fe2+ chelation.
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Project description:Physical gestures are prominent features of many species' multimodal displays, yet how evolution incorporates body and leg movements into animal signaling repertoires is unclear. Androgenic hormones modulate the production of reproductive signals and sexual motor skills in many vertebrates; therefore, one possibility is that selection for physical signals drives the evolution of androgenic sensitivity in select neuromotor pathways. We examined this issue in the Bornean rock frog (Staurois parvus, family: Ranidae). Males court females and compete with rivals by performing both vocalizations and hind limb gestural signals, called "foot flags." Foot flagging is a derived display that emerged in the ranids after vocal signaling. Here, we show that administration of testosterone (T) increases foot flagging behavior under seminatural conditions. Moreover, using quantitative PCR, we also find that adult male S. parvus maintain a unique androgenic phenotype, in which androgen receptor (AR) in the hind limb musculature is expressed at levels ?10× greater than in two other anuran species, which do not produce foot flags (Rana pipiens and Xenopus laevis). Finally, because males of all three of these species solicit mates with calls, we accordingly detect no differences in AR expression in the vocal apparatus (larynx) among taxa. The results show that foot flagging is an androgen-dependent gestural signal, and its emergence is associated with increased androgenic sensitivity within the hind limb musculature. Selection for this novel gestural signal may therefore drive the evolution of increased AR expression in key muscles that control signal production to support adaptive motor performance.
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Project description:Understanding skeletal aging and predicting fracture risk is increasingly important with a growing elderly population. We hypothesized that when categorized by external bone size, the male femoral diaphysis would show different strength-age trajectories which can be explained by changes in morphology, composition and collagen cross-linking. Cadaveric male femora were sorted into narrow (n = 15, 26-89 years) and wide (n = 15, 29-82 years) groups based upon total cross-sectional area of the mid-shaft normalized to bone length (Tt.Ar/Le) and tested for whole bone strength, tissue-level strength, and tissue-level post-yield strain. Morphology, cortical TMD (Ct.TMD), porosity, direct measurements of enzymatic collagen cross-links, and pentosidine were obtained. The wide group alone showed significant negative correlations with age for tissue-level strength (R2 = 0.50, p = 0.002), tissue-level post-yield strain (R2 = 0.75, p < 0.001) and borderline significance for whole bone strength (R2 = 0.14, p = 0.108). Ct.TMD correlated with whole bone and tissue-level strength for both groups, but pentosidine normalized to enzymatic cross-links correlated negatively with all mechanical properties for the wide group only. The multivariate analysis showed that just three traits for each mechanical property explained the majority of the variance for whole bone strength (Ct.Area, Ct.TMD, Log(PEN/Mature; R2 = 0.75), tissue-level strength (Age, Ct.TMD, Log(DHLNL/HLNL); R2 = 0.56), and post-yield strain (Age, Log(Pyrrole), Ct.Area; R2 = 0.51). Overall, this highlights how inter-individual differences in bone structure, composition, and strength change with aging and that a one-size fits all understanding of skeletal aging is insufficient.
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Project description:Asian tarsiid and sivaladapid primates maintained relictual distributions in southern Asia long after the extirpation of their close Holarctic relatives near the Eocene-Oligocene boundary. We report here the discovery of amphipithecid and eosimiid primates from Oligocene coastal deposits in Pakistan that demonstrate that stem anthropoids also survived in southern Asia beyond the climatic deterioration that characterized the Eocene-Oligocene transition. These fossils provide data on temporal and paleobiogeographic aspects of early anthropoid evolution and significantly expand the record of stem anthropoid evolution in the Paleogene of South Asia.
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