Dataset Information

Access to oxytocin and misoprostol for management of postpartum haemorrhage in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia: a cross-sectional assessment of availability, prices and affordability.

ABSTRACT:

Objective

To assess access (availability and affordability) to oxytocin and misoprostol at health facilities in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia to improve prevention and management of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH).

Design

The assessment was undertaken using data from Health Action International (HAI) research on sexual and reproductive health commodities based on a cross-sectional design adapted from the standardised WHO/HAI methodology.

Setting

Data were collected from 376 health facilities in in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia in July and August 2017.

Outcome measures

Availability was calculated as mean percentage of sampled medicine outlets where medicine was found on the day of data collection. Medicine prices were compared with international reference prices (IRP) and expressed as median price ratios. Affordability was calculated using number of days required to pay for a standard treatment based on the daily income of the lowest paid government worker.

Results

Availability of either oxytocin or misoprostol at health facilities was high; 81% in Kenya, 82% in Uganda and 76% in Zambia. Oxytocin was more available than misoprostol, and it was most available in the public sector in the three countries. Availability of misoprostol was highest in the public sector in Uganda (88%). Oxytocin and misoprostol were purchased by patients at prices above IRP, but both medicines cost less than a day's wages and were therefore affordable. Availability of misoprostol was poor in rural settings where it would be more preferred due to lack of trained personnel and cold storage facilities required for oxytocin.

Conclusion

Availability and affordability of either oxytocin or misoprostol at health facilities met the WHO benchmark of 80%. However, countries with limited resources should explore mechanisms to optimise management of PPH by improving access to misoprostol especially in rural areas.

SUBMITTER: Kibira D

PROVIDER: S-EPMC7797249 | biostudies-literature | 2021 Jan

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

ACCESS DATA

Publications

Access to oxytocin and misoprostol for management of postpartum haemorrhage in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia: a cross-sectional assessment of availability, prices and affordability.

Kibira Denis D Ooms Gaby Isabelle GI van den Ham Hendrika A HA Namugambe Juliet Sanyu JS Reed Tim T Leufkens Hubert Gm HG Mantel-Teeuwisse Aukje A

BMJ open 20210107 1

<h4>Objective</h4>To assess access (availability and affordability) to oxytocin and misoprostol at health facilities in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia to improve prevention and management of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH).<h4>Design</h4>The assessment was undertaken using data from Health Action International (HAI) research on sexual and reproductive health commodities based on a cross-sectional design adapted from the standardised WHO/HAI methodology.<h4>Setting</h4>Data were collected from 376 health ...[more]

PMID: 33414148

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Project description:BackgroundAccess to affordable and good quality medicines is a key to meeting Sustainable Development Goal No. 3 by the year 2030. Prices, availability and affordability of essential medicines have been studied in many developing countries, but no such information has been published about Rwanda yet. This study aimed at providing data on prices, availability and affordability of medicines in different health facilities of Rwanda.MethodsA survey was carried out on availability, prices and affordability of 18 medicines in Kigali City and five districts of Rwanda. 44 health facilities were surveyed, including public and faith-based hospitals, public and faith-based health centers and private pharmacies. The standardized methodology developed by WHO and Health Action International (HAI) was used to collect and analyze the data.FindingsPrices for generic medicines in public and faith-based health facilities were remarkably low, with median price ratios (MPRs) of 1.0 in comparison to the international procurement prices published by Management Sciences for Health. In private pharmacies, prices were twice as high (MPR = 1.99 for generics). Availability of medicines fell short of the of 80% target set by WHO, but was better than reported from many other developing countries. Availability of medicines was highest in the private sector (71.3%) and slightly lower in the faith-based (62.8%) and public (59.6%) sectors. The government procurement agency was found to work efficiently, achieving prices 30% below the international procurement price given in the International Medical Product Price Guide. Affordability of medicines was better in the public and faith-based sectors than in the private sector.ConclusionIn Rwanda, medicines are affordable but poorly available in both the public and the faith-based sectors. Further improvements of the availability of medicines in the public and the faith-based health facilities represent the most important key to increase accessibility and affordability of medicines in Rwanda.

Project description:OBJECTIVES:To explore availability, prices and affordability of essential medicines for diabetes and hypertension treatment in private pharmacies in three provinces of Zambia. METHODS:A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 99 pharmacies across three Zambian provinces. Methods were based on a standardized methodology by the World Health Organization and Health Action International. Availability was analysed as mean availability per pharmacy and individual medicine. Median prices were compared to international reference prices and differences in price between medicine forms (original brand or generic product) were computed. Affordability was assessed as number of days' salaries required to purchase a standard treatment course using the absolute poverty line and mean per capita provincial household income as standard. An analysis identifying medicines considered both available and affordable was conducted. RESULTS:Two antidiabetics and nine antihypertensives had high-level availability (≥80%) in all provinces; availability levels for the remaining surveyed antidiabetics and antihypertensives were largely found below 50%. Availability further varied markedly across medicines and medicine forms. Prices for most medicines were higher than international reference prices and great price variations were found between pharmacies, medicines and medicine forms. Compared to original brand products, purchase of generics was associated with price savings for patients between 21.54% and 96.47%. No medicine was affordable against the absolute poverty line and only between four and eleven using mean per capita provincial incomes. Seven generics in Copperbelt/Lusaka and two in Central province were highly available and affordable. CONCLUSIONS:The study showed that the majority of surveyed antidiabetic and antihypertensive medicines was inadequately available (<80%). In addition, most prices were higher than their international reference prices and that treatment with these medicines was largely unaffordable against the set affordability thresholds. Underlying reasons for the findings should be explored as a basis for targeted policy initiatives.

Project description:BackgroundHaiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere and faces numerous challenges, including inadequate medication access for its residents. The objective of this study was to determine the availability, prices, and affordability of essential medicines in Haiti and compare these findings to other countries.MethodsWe conducted a cross-sectional nationwide survey in 2011 of availability and consumer prices of 60 essential medicines in Haiti using a standardized methodology developed by the World Health Organization and Health Action International. The survey was conducted in 163 medicine outlets in four health care sectors (public, retail, nonprofit and mixed sectors). Medicine prices were expressed as ratios relative to the International Reference Price. Affordability was calculated by comparing the costs of treatment for common conditions with the salary of the lowest paid government worker and was compared to available data from four Latin American countries.ResultsFor generic medicines, the availability in public, retail, nonprofit and mixed sectors was 20%, 37%, 24% and 23% of medications, respectively. Most of the available medicines were priced higher than the International Reference Price. The lowest paid government worker would need 2.5 days' wages to treat an adult respiratory infection with generic medicines from the public sector. For treatment of common conditions with originator brands (OB) purchased from a retail pharmacy, costs were between 1.4 (anaerobic bacterial infection) and 13.7 (hyperlipidemia) days' wages, respectively. Treatment of pediatric bacterial infections with the OB of ceftriaxone from a retail pharmacy would cost 24.6 days' wages. Prices in Bolivia, Colombia, Mexico and Nicaragua were frequently lower for comparable medications.ConclusionsThe availability of essential medicines was low and prices varied widely across all four sectors. Over 75% of Haitians live on less than US$ 2.00 /day; therefore, most medication regimens are largely unaffordable. Inclusion of essential medications on the national formulary and working with organizations responsible for importing medications into Haiti, particularly drug donation agencies, are important first steps to increasing medication access.

Project description:BACKGROUND: Postpartum haemorrhage remains an important cause of maternal death despite treatment with conventional therapy. Uncontrolled studies and one randomised comparison with conventional oxytocics have reported dramatic effects with high-dose misoprostol, usually given rectally, for treatment of postpartum haemorrhage, but this has not been evaluated in a placebo-controlled trial. METHODS: The study was conducted at East London Hospital Complex, Tembisa and Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospitals, South Africa. Routine active management of the third stage of labour was practised. Women with more than usual postpartum bleeding thought to be related to inadequate uterine contraction were invited to participate, and to sign informed consent. All routine treatment was given from a special 'Postpartum Haemorrhage Trolley'. In addition, participants who consented were enrolled by drawing the next in a series of randomised treatment packs containing either misoprostol 5 x 200 microg or similar placebo, which were given 1 orally, 2 sublingually and 2 rectally. RESULTS: With misoprostol there was a trend to reduced blood loss >/=500 ml in 1 hour after enrolment measured in a flat plastic 'fracture bedpan', the primary outcome (6/117 vs 11/120, relative risk 0.56; 95% confidence interval 0.21 to 1.46). There was no difference in mean blood loss or haemoglobin level on day 1 after birth < 6 g/dl or blood transfusion. Side-effects were increased, namely shivering (63/116 vs 30/118; 2.14, 1.50 to 3.04) and pyrexia > 38.5 degrees C (11/114 vs 2/118; 5.69, 1.29 to 25). In the misoprostol group 3 women underwent hysterectomy of whom 1 died, and there were 2 further maternal deaths. CONCLUSIONS: Because of a lower than expected incidence of the primary outcome in the placebo group, the study was underpowered. We could not confirm the dramatic effect of misoprostol reported in several unblinded studies, but the results do not exclude a clinically important effect. Larger studies are needed to assess substantive outcomes and risks before misoprostol enters routine use.

Project description:BackgroundPostpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a leading cause of maternal death in sub-Saharan Africa. Although the World Health Organization recommends use of oxytocin for prevention of PPH, misoprostol use is increasingly common owing to advantages in shelf life and potential for sublingual administration. There is a lack of data about the comparative efficacy of oxytocin and sublingual misoprostol, particularly at the recommended dose of 600 µg, for prevention of PPH during active management of labor.Methods and findingsWe performed a double-blind, double-dummy randomized controlled non-inferiority trial between 23 September 2012 and 9 September 2013 at Mbarara Regional Referral Hospital in Uganda. We randomized 1,140 women to receive 600 µg of misoprostol sublingually or 10 IU of oxytocin intramuscularly, along with matching placebos for the treatment they did not receive. Our primary outcome of interest was PPH, defined as measured blood loss ≥ 500 ml within 24 h of delivery. Secondary outcomes included measured blood loss ≥ 1,000 ml; mean measured blood loss at 1, 2, and 24 h after delivery; death; requirement for blood transfusion; hemoglobin changes; and use of additional uterotonics. At 24 h postpartum, primary PPH occurred in 163 (28.6%) participants in the misoprostol group and 99 (17.4%) participants in the oxytocin group (relative risk [RR] 1.64, 95% CI 1.32 to 2.05, p<0.001; absolute risk difference 11.2%, 95% CI 6.44 to 16.1). Severe PPH occurred in 20 (3.6%) and 15 (2.7%) participants in the misoprostol and oxytocin groups, respectively (RR 1.33, 95% CI 0.69 to 2.58, p = 0.391; absolute risk difference 0.9%, 95% CI -1.12 to 2.88). Mean measured blood loss was 341.5 ml (standard deviation [SD] 206.2) and 304.2 ml (SD 190.8, p = 0.002) at 2 h and 484.7 ml (SD 213.3) and 432.8 ml (SD 203.5, p<0.001) at 24 h in the misoprostol and oxytocin groups, respectively. There were no significant differences between the two groups in any other secondary outcomes. Women in the misoprostol group more commonly experienced shivering (RR 1.91, 95% CI 1.65 to 2.21, p<0.001) and fevers (RR 5.20, 95% CI 3.15 to 7.21, p = 0.005). This study was conducted at a regional referral hospital with capacity for emergency surgery and blood transfusion. High-risk women were excluded from participation.ConclusionsMisoprostol 600 µg is inferior to oxytocin 10 IU for prevention of primary PPH in active management of labor. These data support use of oxytocin in settings where it is available. While not powered to do so, the study found no significant differences in rate of severe PPH, need for blood transfusion, postpartum hemoglobin, change in hemoglobin, or use of additional uterotonics between study groups. Further research should focus on clarifying whether and in which sub-populations use of oxytocin would be preferred over sublingual misoprostol.Trial registrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT01866241 Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary.

Project description:BACKGROUND:Access to sexual and reproductive health services continues to be a public health concern in Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia: use of modern contraceptives is low, and unmet family planning needs and maternal mortality remain high. This study is an assessment of the availability, affordability and stock-outs of essential sexual and reproductive health commodities (SRHC) in these countries to inform interventions to improve access. METHODS:The study consisted of an adaptation of the World Health Organization/Health Action International methodology, Measuring Medicine Prices, Availability, Affordability and Price Components. Price, availability and stock-out data was collected in July 2019 for over fifty lowest-priced SRHC from public, private and private not-for-profit health facilities in Kenya (n = 221), Tanzania (n = 373), Uganda (n = 146) and Zambia (n = 245). Affordability was calculated using the wage of a lowest-paid government worker. Accessibility was illustrated by combining the availability (≥ 80%) and affordability (less than 1 day's wage) measures. RESULTS:Overall availability of SRHC was low at less than 50% in all sectors, areas and countries, with highest mean availability found in Kenyan public facilities (46.6%). Stock-outs were common; the average number of stock-out days per month ranged from 3 days in Kenya's private and private not-for-profit sectors, to 12 days in Zambia's public sector. In the public sectors of Kenya, Uganda and Zambia, as well as in Zambia's private not-for-profit sector, all SRHC were free for the patient. In the other sectors unaffordability ranged from 2 to 9 SRHC being unaffordable, with magnesium sulphate being especially unaffordable in the countries. Accessibility was low across the countries, with Kenya's and Zambia's public sectors having six SRHC that met the accessibility threshold, while the private sector of Uganda had only one SRHC meeting the threshold. CONCLUSIONS:Accessibility of SRHC remains a challenge. Low availability of SRHC in the public sector is compounded by regular stock-outs, forcing patients to seek care in other sectors where there are availability and affordability challenges. Health system strengthening is needed to ensure access, and these findings should be used by national governments to identify the gaps and shortcomings in their supply chains.

Project description:BackgroundPostpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal mortality in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Oxytocin and misoprostol are used for the prevention and treatment of PPH. However, both medicines are chemically unstable and sensitive to environmental conditions. Previous studies reported a high prevalence of substandard oxytocin and misoprostol preparations in LMICs.MethodsIn randomly selected health facilities of four districts of Malawi, the availability of oxytocin and misoprostol was determined, and the knowledge of health workers on storage requirements and use of oxytocics was assessed. Temperature loggers were used to record the storage temperature of oxytocics. Samples of oxytocin injections and misoprostol tablets were collected from the health facilities and from wholesalers. Oxytocin samples were analysed for identity, assay (= quantity of oxytocin) and for pH value according to United States Pharmacopeia 40. Misoprostol samples were analysed for identity, assay, dissolution and related substances according to the International Pharmacopeia 2017.ResultsAll visited hospitals and health centers had oxytocin available. At non-refrigerated storage sites, the recorded mean kinetic temperature exceeded the oxytocic's storage temperature stated on the labels in 42% of the sites. At refrigerated storage sites, the required temperature of 2-8 °C was exceeded in 33% of the sites. Out of 65 oxytocin samples, 7 (11%) showed moderate deviations from specification, containing 82.2-86.8% of the declared amount of oxytocin. Out of 30 misoprostol samples, 5 (17%) showed extreme deviations, containing only 12.7-30.2% of the declared amount. The extremely substandard misoprostol was reported to the national authorities and to WHO, leading to an immediate recall of the respective brand in Malawi. The UK-based distributor of this brand closed its business shortly thereafter.ConclusionAvailability of oxytocin was excellent in Malawi, and its quality was better than reported in previous studies in other LMICs. However, storage conditions at the health facilities often did not meet the requirements. Extremely substandard misoprostol tablets were found, representing a serious risk to maternal health. This shows the need for continued efforts for quality assurance in medicine procurement and registration, as well as for post-marketing surveillance.

Project description:BackgroundFree access to essential medicines is a fundamental right. Governments should provide accessible and affordable medicines to people. The purpose of this study was to evaluate medicines' prices, availability and affordability in Jordan.MethodData was collected from 30 public sectors and 30 private sectors in 6 regions in Jordan. At each institution, the availability and prices data of 50 originator brand (OB) medicines and lowest-price generic (LPG) equivalent medicines were collected. Medicines' prices were compared with international reference prices (IRPs) to obtain a median price ratio (MPR). Availability of medicines was determined on the day of data collection. Affordability was calculated with regards to the daily income of the lowest-paid unskilled government employee.ResultAvailability of medicines in public and private sectors was 72% and 76% for LPGs, respectively. Median MPRs of procurement prices for OBs and LPGs in the public sector were 1.1 and 5.5 times the IRPs, respectively. Private sector OB medicines were priced 4.8 times higher than IRPs, whereas LPGs were 3.8 times higher. OBs cost 14% more than LPGs in private sector. The median MPRs of patient prices for LPGs in the public sector were lower than in the private sector (1.1 versus 7.6). Generally, medicines' prices are affordable in public sector that the lowest paid unskilled government employee need less than a 1 day income to purchase the LPGs. While in private sector, the medicine prices are not affordable. For example, the treatment of hypertension either by LPGs or OBs needs more than 1 day income by lowest paid unskilled government employee.ConclusionThis study showed good availability of LPGs in the public sector. In private sector, it showed good availability of LPGs and OBs with higher patient prices. The procurement prices in the public sector were reasonable in comparison to IRPs. Policy evaluation efforts must be directed to cut medicines prices and to improve affordability in private sector.

Dataset Information

Access to oxytocin and misoprostol for management of postpartum haemorrhage in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia: a cross-sectional assessment of availability, prices and affordability.

Objective

Design

Setting

Outcome measures

Results

Conclusion

Publications

Access to oxytocin and misoprostol for management of postpartum haemorrhage in Kenya, Uganda and Zambia: a cross-sectional assessment of availability, prices and affordability.

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