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3D-Printable Nanocellulose-Based Functional Materials: Fundamentals and Applications.

ABSTRACT: Nanomaterials obtained from sustainable and natural sources have seen tremendous growth in recent times due to increasing interest in utilizing readily and widely available resources. Nanocellulose materials extracted from renewable biomasses hold great promise for increasing the sustainability of conventional materials in various applications owing to their biocompatibility, mechanical properties, ease of functionalization, and high abundance. Nanocellulose can be used to reinforce mechanical strength, impart antimicrobial activity, provide lighter, biodegradable, and more robust materials for packaging, and produce photochromic and electrochromic devices. While the fabrication and properties of nanocellulose are generally well established, their implementation in novel products and applications requires surface modification, assembly, and manufacturability to enable rapid tooling and scalable production. Additive manufacturing techniques such as 3D printing can improve functionality and enhance the ability to customize products while reducing fabrication time and wastage of materials. This review article provides an overview of nanocellulose as a sustainable material, covering the different properties, preparation methods, printability and strategies to functionalize nanocellulose into 3D-printed constructs. The applications of 3D-printed nanocellulose composites in food, environmental, and energy devices are outlined, and an overview of challenges and opportunities is provided.

SUBMITTER: Finny AS

PROVIDER: S-EPMC8471614 | biostudies-literature |

REPOSITORIES: biostudies-literature

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Nanocellulose: From Fundamentals to Advanced Applications.

Project description:Over the past few years, nanocellulose (NC), cellulose in the form of nanostructures, has been proved to be one of the most prominent green materials of modern times. NC materials have gained growing interests owing to their attractive and excellent characteristics such as abundance, high aspect ratio, better mechanical properties, renewability, and biocompatibility. The abundant hydroxyl functional groups allow a wide range of functionalizations via chemical reactions, leading to developing various materials with tunable features. In this review, recent advances in the preparation, modification, and emerging application of nanocellulose, especially cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), are described and discussed based on the analysis of the latest investigations (particularly for the reports of the past 3 years). We start with a concise background of cellulose, its structural organization as well as the nomenclature of cellulose nanomaterials for beginners in this field. Then, different experimental procedures for the production of nanocelluloses, their properties, and functionalization approaches were elaborated. Furthermore, a number of recent and emerging uses of nanocellulose in nanocomposites, Pickering emulsifiers, wood adhesives, wastewater treatment, as well as in new evolving biomedical applications are presented. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of NC-based emerging materials are discussed.

| S-EPMC7218176 | biostudies-literature

Advanced Functional Materials Based on Nanocellulose for Pharmaceutical/Medical Applications.

Project description:Nanocelluloses (NCs), with their remarkable characteristics, have proven to be one of the most promising "green" materials of our times and have received special attention from researchers in nanomaterials. A diversity of new functional materials with a wide range of biomedical applications has been designed based on the most desirable properties of NCs, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and their special physicochemical properties. In this context and under the pressure of rapid development of this field, it is imperative to synthesize the successes and the new requirements in a comprehensive review. The first part of this work provides a brief review of the characteristics of the NCs (cellulose nanocrystals-CNC, cellulose nanofibrils-CNF, and bacterial nanocellulose-BNC), as well as of the main functional materials based on NCs (hydrogels, nanogels, and nanocomposites). The second part presents an extensive review of research over the past five years on promising pharmaceutical and medical applications of nanocellulose-based materials, which have been discussed in three important areas: drug-delivery systems, materials for wound-healing applications, as well as tissue engineering. Finally, an in-depth assessment of the in vitro and in vivo cytotoxicity of NCs-based materials, as well as the challenges related to their biodegradability, is performed.

| S-EPMC8399340 | biostudies-literature

Fabrication and characterization of 3D printable nanocellulose-based hydrogels for tissue engineering.

Project description:Cellulose nanocrystal (CNC)-based hydrogels are considered attractive biomaterials for tissue engineering due to their excellent physicochemical properties. Hydrogels of alginate and gelatin were prepared with or without CNCs and printed using a CELLINK® BIOX 3D bio-printer. The 3D-printed scaffolds were characterized by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Improved mechanical strength was observed in the composite scaffolds compared to the pure polymer scaffolds. Fabricated scaffolds exhibited superior swelling potential; this property is profoundly affected by the CNC content of hydrogels. Biocompatibility of the fabricated scaffolds was monitored in the presence of human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) using the WST-1 assay. Notably, better cell viability was observed in the composite scaffolds than in the control, indicating improved biocompatibility of composites. Cells were healthy and adhered appropriately to the surface of the scaffolds. Mineralization potential of the prepared scaffolds was evaluated by the alizarin red S (ARS) staining technique in the presence of hBMSCs after 7 and 14 days of treatment. Enhanced mineral deposition was observed in the composite scaffolds compared to the control, indicating superior composite mineralization potential. Upregulation of osteogenic-associated genes was observed in the scaffold-treated groups relative to the control, showing superior scaffold osteogenic potential. These results demonstrate that 3D-printed scaffolds are potential candidates for bone tissue engineering applications.

| S-EPMC8695076 | biostudies-literature

3D-Printable and Enzymatically Active Composite Materials Based on Hydrogel-Filled High Internal Phase Emulsions.

Project description:The immobilization of enzymes in biocatalytic flow reactors is a common strategy to increase enzyme reusability and improve biocatalytic performance. Extrusion-based 3D bioprinting has recently emerged as a versatile tool for the fabrication of perfusable hydrogel grids containing entrapped enzymes for the use in such reactors. This study demonstrates the suitability of water-in-oil high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) as 3D-printable bioinks for the fabrication of composite materials with a porous polymeric scaffold (polyHIPE) filled with enzyme-laden hydrogel. The prepared HIPEs exhibited excellent printability and are shown to be suitable for the printing of complex three-dimensional structures without the need for sacrificial support material. An automated activity assay method for the systematic screening of different material compositions in small-scale batch experiments is presented. The monomer mass fraction in the aqueous phase and the thickness of printed objects were found to be the most important parameters determining the apparent activity of the immobilized enzyme. Mass transfer limitations and enzyme inactivation were identified as probable factors reducing the apparent activity. The presented HIPE-based bioinks enable the fabrication of flow-optimized and more efficient biocatalytic reactors while the automated activity assay method allows the rapid screening of materials to optimize the biocatalytic efficiency further without time-consuming flow-through experiments involving whole printed reactors.

| S-EPMC7396703 | biostudies-literature

3D-printable zwitterionic nano-composite hydrogel system for biomedical applications.

Project description:Herein, the cytotoxicity of a novel zwitterionic sulfobetaine hydrogel system with a nano-clay crosslinker has been investigated. We demonstrate that careful selection of the composition of the system (monomer to Laponite content) allows the material to be formed into controlled shapes using an extrusion based additive manufacturing technique with the ability to tune the mechanical properties of the product. Moreover, the printed structures can support their own weight without requiring curing during printing which enables the use of a printing-then-curing approach. Cell culture experiments were conducted to evaluate the neural cytotoxicity of the developed hydrogel system. Cytotoxicity evaluations were conducted on three different conditions; a control condition, an indirect condition (where the culture medium used had been in contact with the hydrogel to investigate leaching) and a direct condition (cells growing directly on the hydrogel). The result showed no significant difference in cell viability between the different conditions and cells were also found to be growing on the hydrogel surface with extended neurites present.

| S-EPMC7604982 | biostudies-literature

The mechanical and photoelastic properties of 3D printable stress-visualized materials.

Project description:Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology integrating frozen stress techniques has created a novel way to directly represent and characterize 3D interior discontinuities and the full-field stress induced by mining- or construction-related disturbances of deeply buried rock masses. However, concerns have been raised about the similitude between the mechanical behaviours of the printed model and its prototype rock mass. Ensuring the mechanical properties of the printable materials are as close as possible to those of real rock mass is of critical significance. In this work, a transparent, light, photosensitive polymer material was investigated for applications in frozen stress tests. The chemical composition of the material was determined by integrating the results of infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy), X-ray diffraction (XRD), pyrolysis, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (PY-GC/MS). Measures to improve the mechanical properties of the printable material, including printing orientation, post-processing, and temperature control, were evaluated by comparing the treated material with its prototype rock. The optical stress sensitivity of the material, including stress-visualized properties and stress-frozen performance, was also tested. This study offers an understanding of how printable materials should be modified to better simulate real rock masses, in terms of not only their geological geometry but also their mechanical performance.

| S-EPMC5589947 | biostudies-literature

Sustainable and Printable Nanocellulose-Based Ionogels as Gel Polymer Electrolytes for Supercapacitors.

Project description:A new gel polymer electrolyte (GPE) based supercapacitor with an ionic conductivity up to 0.32-0.94 mS cm-2 has been synthesized from a mixture of an ionic liquid (IL) with nanocellulose (NC). The new NC-ionogel was prepared by combining the IL 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium dimethyl phosphate (EMIMP) with carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibers (CNFc) at different ratios (CNFc ratio from 1 to 4). The addition of CNFc improved the ionogel properties to become easily printable onto the electrode surface. The new GPE based supercapacitor cell showed good electrochemical performance with specific capacitance of 160 F g-1 and an equivalent series resistance (ESR) of 10.2 Ω cm-2 at a current density of 1 mA cm-2. The accessibility to the full capacitance of the device is demonstrated after the addition of CNFc in EMIMP compared to the pristine EMIMP (99 F g-1 and 14.7 Ω cm-2).

| S-EPMC8780157 | biostudies-literature

Waterborne Graphene- and Nanocellulose-Based Inks for Functional Conductive Films and 3D Structures.

Project description:In the vast field of conductive inks, graphene-based nanomaterials, including chemical derivatives such as graphene oxide as well as carbon nanotubes, offer important advantages as per their excellent physical properties. However, inks filled with carbon nanostructures are usually based on toxic and contaminating organic solvents or surfactants, posing serious health and environmental risks. Water is the most desirable medium for any envisioned application, thus, in this context, nanocellulose, an emerging nanomaterial, enables the dispersion of carbon nanomaterials in aqueous media within a sustainable and environmentally friendly scenario. In this work, we present the development of water-based inks made of a ternary system (graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes and nanocellulose) employing an autoclave method. Upon controlling the experimental variables, low-viscosity inks, high-viscosity pastes or self-standing hydrogels can be obtained in a tailored way. The resulting inks and pastes are further processed by spray- or rod-coating technologies into conductive films, and the hydrogels can be turned into aerogels by freeze-drying. The film properties, with respect to electrical surface resistance, surface morphology and robustness, present favorable opportunities as metal-free conductive layers in liquid-phase processed electronic device structures.

| S-EPMC8227753 | biostudies-literature

Photocurable 3D-Printable Systems with Controlled Porosity towards CO2 Air Filtering Applications.

Project description:Porous organic polymers are versatile platforms, easily adaptable to a wide range of applications, from air filtering to energy devices. Their fabrication via vat photopolymerization enables them to control the geometry on a multiscale level, obtaining hierarchical porosity with enhanced surface-to-volume ratio. In this work, a photocurable ink based on 1,6 Hexanediol diacrylate and containing a high internal phase emulsion (HIPE) is presented, employing PLURONIC F-127 as a surfactant to generate stable micelles. Different parameters were studied to assess the effects on the morphology of the pores, the printability and the mechanical properties. The tests performed demonstrates that only water-in-oil emulsions were suitable for 3D printing. Afterwards, 3D complex porous objects were printed with a Digital Light Processing (DLP) system. Structures with large, interconnected, homogeneous porosity were fabricated with high printing precision (300 µm) and shape fidelity, due to the addition of a Radical Scavenger and a UV Absorber that improved the 3D printing process. The formulations were then used to build scaffolds with complex architecture to test its application as a filter for CO2 absorption and trapping from environmental air. This was obtained by surface decoration with NaOH nanoparticles. Depending on the surface coverage, tested specimens demonstrated long-lasting absorption efficiency.

| S-EPMC9740396 | biostudies-literature

Printable and recyclable carbon electronics using crystalline nanocellulose dielectrics.

Project description:Electronic waste can lead to the accumulation of environmentally and biologically toxic materials and is a growing global concern. Developments in transient electronics-in which devices are designed to disintegrate after use-have focused on increasing the biocompatibility, whereas efforts to develop methods to recapture and reuse materials have focused on conducting materials, while neglecting other electronic materials. Here, we report all-carbon thin-film transistors made using crystalline nanocellulose as a dielectric, carbon nanotubes as a semiconductor, graphene as a conductor and paper as a substrate. A crystalline nanocellulose ink is developed that is compatible with nanotube and graphene inks and can be written onto a paper substrate using room-temperature aerosol jet printing. The addition of mobile sodium ions to the dielectric improves the thin-film transistor on-current (87 μA mm-1) and subthreshold swing (132 mV dec-1), and leads to a faster voltage sweep rate (by around 20 times) than without ions. The devices also exhibit stable performance over six months in ambient conditions and can be controllably decomposed, with the graphene and carbon nanotube inks recaptured for recycling (>95% recapture efficiency) and reprinting of new transistors. We demonstrate the utility of the thin-film transistors by creating a fully printed, paper-based biosensor for lactate sensing.

| S-EPMC8974641 | biostudies-literature

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